Textile Notes related to fiber, yarn, fabric knowledge, spinning, weaving, processing, projects, knitting, Indian Traditional Textiles and denim manufacturing
The following printing defects are frequently observed in screen or roller printing:
1. Scrimp
During the printing process the fabric sometimes creases under one of the screen during the printing process. Thus the pattern is printed on the top of the screen. When the crease is removed, it leaves a large area of the fabric unprinted.
2. Misfit or Out of Registration
A misfit is a defect caused when screens are not properly aligned. The misaligned screens can leave an area unprinted or cause the pattern overlap on one another.
3. Stick-in
A stick-in occurs when a small fiber or yarn get stuck in one of the screen openings. It can result is a small unprinted circle in the design of the size of the tip of a pen. A stick-in is very difficult to see and often go unnoticed.
4. Wicking or Flushing
It occurs when the printed area bleeds out into the unprinted area. This results in a "haloing" or shadowing effect around the outline of the pattern design. Wicking is often caused by residual salts left in the fabric during resign finishing or during fabric preparation.
5. Doctor Streak
It refers to a wavy white or colored streak in the fabric in the warp direction. It is called so because it is caused by damaged or improperly set doctor blade in the printing machine. A doctor blade is a metal knife that cleans or scrapes the excess dye from engraved printing rollers, leaving dye paste only in the valleys of engraved areas.
6. Mottled
It results from the color applied unevenly during printing
7. Printing Machine Stop
As a result of printing machine stop the dye sometimes is smudged along the width of the fabric.
An excellent description of defects in digital printing can be found here.
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The plisse prints are created by application of strong alkali to 100% cotton fabric. The alkali is applied in a pattern. After some time ( usually several minutes) the fabric is washed so that the alkali is removed. This results in the shrinkage of fabric from those areas where alkali is applied. This shrinkage causes puckering in the areas where alkali is not applied. A seersucker type appearance can be given to the fabric by applying the print pattern in parallel stripes. The alkali can be applied using direct or resist methods.
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Burn Out Prints
A beautiful "burn out" effect can be created by applying strong mineral acids or acid salts in the selected areas of a cotton polyester blended fabric. The acids will cause cotton to be destroyed and the polyeste rremains. Thus very beautiful lacey designs can be imparted to the fabric. Also in the burn out paste, a disperse dye can be incorporated which will also dye the polyester which burnout is taking place. However, due to the corrosive nature of the process special protections need to be taken.
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Effluent Treatment- Kerosene Recovery from Pigment Printing
In India about 46% of the total printing is done using pigment printing method, 27% using reactive dyes, 15% Disperse dyes, 2% napthol, 3% acid and 7% using vat colors.
In a typical pigment printing paste, 75% is keorsene, 10% is binder, 5% each is gum and water, 2% urea and 1% each of DAP and emulsifier. Kerosene water emulsion acts as a thinkner is pigment printing. Its use is prohibitied in most of the developed countries. Alternatives to kerosene are synthetic thickners but they make the printed fabric stiff.
In India alone, about 140 thousand kiloliters of kerosene per annum is consumed during the process of printing and drying. Out of the total kerosene applied, about 22% is lost at various points during this process( 1 % is left out on the fabric, 12% screen printing and wastage, 5% is before dryer, 4% is at curing machine and 78% is released or evaporated in the atmosphere during the process of drying at 120-150 deg C). It signifies a loss of precious kerosene as well as pollution in the environment.
Apart from the effluents generated during wet processing, there is a substantial amount of kerosene vapour that is released in the air in the process of pigment printing.
Any kerosene recovery process should be based on the fact that kerosene is liquid at room temperature and immiscible with water. The kerosene vapour are at 120 deg C and they have to be cooled below 40 deg Celcius. The kerosene and water will separate out in two layers, with top layer can be skimmed for reuse.
An excellent effluent treatment plant is proposed by BTRA. Average recovery is 58% whereas maximum recovery can be 85%. Read more about it here
To view the pigment printing process and alternative to kerosene, please find the link here.
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High Density is a popular special effect that rises straight up off the shirt and has a hard rubbery feel with sharp edges. A High density print has slight glossy finish.
To get these effects about 20% of the puff base is taken which is then mix with colored inks to make it 100%. The base is Vinylidene chloride based polymer and the inks are Acrylic co-polymers.
Then it is printed in 5-8 rounds depending upon height required on normal screen ( 2 flood/ 2 strokes). After that 3 rounds of printing is given with 150 micron film screen and then 2 rounds with 220 micron capillary film screen depending upon the height.
An excellent video on flooding and stroking is embedded as below:
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Glitter printing enables the fabric to show glittering granules on the fabric. For this Glitter powder is used.
Glitter Powder is generally PET with size of 1/8" to 1/256". It is cut into square and hexagon shape. It is available in metallic, rainbow, laser and iridescent colors. Generally it comes in 25 kg bag. A typical glitter power substance is heat resistant to 170 degree celcius and is acid and alkaline proof. The picture of the glitter powder is as given below:
To Print, first glitter paste is prepared. Glitter powder is added in the Glitter ink, under stirring slowly to avoid lumb formation. Glitter ink is made of acrylic co-polymer. Then it is screen printed using Bull nose squeegee (You can read an excellent manual on squeegee here.) The mesh size should not be more than 20 T (An excellent premier on mesh size can be read here).
One can get an idea of the prices of the chemicals used for glitter printing here.
Dabu is a mud-resist hand-block printing practiced in Rajasthan of India. The prints have a sublime quality and appearance. In making of the printed fabrics, a lot of manual process and hard work is involved and the process of uses lots of natural dyes and vegetable pastes. Here is a brief outline of the process.
1. First of all Fabric is received from the mills. Traditionally mill made cloth of 30s, 60s and Mull is used.It is heavily sized. For that it needs to be desized.Desizing is done by repeatedly beating the wet fabric against a hard surface (stone). It is frequently kept for a day after such beating so that enzymatic reaction can loosen the size. Next day it is again beaten and so on. This process continues for three days.
2.After that the fabric is dipped in Myrobalan (Tanning) agent. The myrobalan paste is prepared about three hours in advance by mixing about 2kg paste for 100 m of fabric.
3.After that the fabric is dried in the sunlight
4. After that fabric is printed once with a paste of Alum+ Tamarind Seed+Direct dye to distinguish. (Red Process-No Dabu)
5. After that fabric is washed once, and then it is dried and then go for boiling.In boiling we boil the fabric with Dhauri Ke Phool ( Jaloor)+ Alizarin ( Madder)+Mahi for 1 hour at 100deg Celcius. The fabric is circulated about 5 times using Bamboo Poles. If the color required is dark then some iron water needs to be added.
6. After it is dried and then the next process of Dabu is done. Printing paste is made using ( Jaggery, Hydrate of Lime, Kali Mitti and Gum ( Nigeria). The paste is then spread over a coir to give it a base. The printing is done using blocks. (White Process-Dabu).
Saw dust is sprinkled over the fabric as it is printed so that the block applied should not smear the other sides
1.Then it is dried in the sunlight.
After that the fabric is treated with Myrobalan again.
3.Then it is dried and then dipped completely in Alum + Water.
4.Then it is dried and washed and again boiled with Alizarin+ Mahi( Sakur)+ Dhawdi. Then it is dried in the sun and washed to reveal the dabu resist .
Want to see something modern in Dabu ?? Klick here.
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There are various printing techniques available. All have their unique points as well as shortcomings. It would be worthwhile to compare them in order to appreciate and use them for a particular end use.
Handblock Printing: It yields very low production, there is more downtime of ‘machine’. The cost of set up is very less. Very skilled personnel is required to do such printing. The cost of making a design is very less, however durability of design is very low, being defined by durability of block, usually made of wood. The variety of designs is dictated by the skill of the woodworker who carves those designs. The size of design pattern repeat can be larger. There is a limitation of width of the fabric- which is dictated by the width of the table. The printing can be very bold or subdued. In fact, in India there are numerous techniques based on a twin combination of natural dyes and block printing.
Roller Printing: Yields more production , machine downtown is very less, however cost of setup is high- as investment is needed for the maching. The space required is less. Again very skillful operators are required. The cost of making a design is more, as roller has to be carved. The durability of the design is more than a handblock print. Very elaborate and fine designs can be carved on a roller printing. The repeat size is limited to upto 42 cm. Again it has a limitation of fabric width. Very bold and lustrous prints cannot be done on a roller printing.
Flat Bed Screen Printing: Yields more production but less than roller printing as the process is not continuous. There is very less downtime of the machine. The cost of machine and installation is very high. The space requirement is also very high. Very less skilled workers are needed for this printing method. The cost of making a design is less as compared to a roller printing. The durability of the design however is very less, as new screen has to be made after few uses. The quality of designs can be very fine. The repeat of pattern can be very high. Also even a higher width cloth can be printed. The colors can be very bright and bold.
Rotary Printing: It has the maximum production among all printing techniques. The machine downtime is very less. The cost of machine and space requirement is again very high. Less skilled workers can be employed to operate this machine. Cost of making a design is very high. Compared to this the durability of the design is very less. The variety of design it offers and the quality of reproduction is the best among all techniques. Also fabric width can be high for it to be printed. It can yield bright colors.
Transfer Printing: It can do printing only on synthetic fibers such as polyester. One cannot get a ‘tone effect’ in this printing. Even unskilled workers can be used for this technique. However 100% color is not transferred so reproducibility is affected. Paper can’t be used again after one printing therefore its durability is the minimum of all techniques. The cost of making a design is very high. The production is about equal to that of flat bed. There is very less downtime of the machine. Space requirement is very less, infact, less than any other printing technique.
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Colour Fastness to Rubbing: Why Fabrics Sometimes Leave Colour on Other Surfaces
A common complaint in textiles is: “The fabric is giving colour.”
Sometimes the colour comes out during washing, sometimes during perspiration, and sometimes simply by rubbing.
A dark saree rubbing against a light blouse, a printed dupatta staining the neck area, denim leaving blue marks on a bag,
or upholstery fabric staining clothing are all examples of poor colour fastness to rubbing.
The Indian Standard IS 766:1988 gives a method for determining the
colour fastness of textile materials to rubbing. It applies to textile materials in different forms,
including fabrics, yarns, textile floor coverings and pile fabrics. The test is carried out in two ways:
dry rubbing and wet rubbing.
Visual 1: Colour fastness to rubbing test overview — fabric specimen, rubbing cloth, rubbing finger and stain assessment. AI generated- may have mistakes in details
What is colour fastness to rubbing?
Colour fastness to rubbing means the resistance of a dyed or printed textile to transfer its colour to another surface
when rubbed.
In simple language, it answers one practical question:
If this fabric rubs against another fabric, skin, furniture, or garment part, will it stain it?
This is especially important in deep shades such as black, navy, maroon, red, indigo, bottle green and dark brown.
It is also important in printed textiles, pigment prints, denim, sarees, dress materials, upholstery, carpets and pile fabrics.
Why rubbing fastness matters
A fabric may look attractive in the store, but if it stains another garment during use, the customer experiences it as a
quality failure. Colour fastness depends not only on the nature and depth of the dye, but also on fibre type and the dyeing
or printing method used. The same colouring matter may behave differently on different fibres or when applied by different
processes.
For merchandisers, buyers and quality inspectors, this means one important thing:
Colour fastness cannot be assumed only from appearance. It has to be tested.
Principle of the rubbing fastness test
In this test, the textile specimen is rubbed with a standard white cotton rubbing cloth. After rubbing, the staining on the
rubbing cloth is assessed using a grey scale for staining. Two tests are made:
one using a dry rubbing cloth and another using a wet rubbing cloth.
The idea is very practical. If colour transfers to the white rubbing cloth, the fabric has lower rubbing fastness.
If very little colour transfers, the fabric has better rubbing fastness.
Apparatus used
The test requires a rubbing testing device. For pile fabrics, including textile floor coverings, a larger rubbing finger is used:
3.2 cm diameter, with a downward force of 22 N, moving along a
10 cm track.
For all other textiles, a 1.6 cm diameter rubbing finger is used with a downward force of
9 N, again moving along a 10 cm track.
The rubbing cloth is a standard cotton cloth: desized, bleached, without finish, cut into
5 cm × 5 cm squares. A grey scale for evaluating staining is then used to rate the amount of colour transferred.
Visual 2: Dry rubbing and wet rubbing comparison — showing how the rubbing cloth is used in both test conditions. AI generated- May have mistakes in details.
Preparation of the specimen
For fabrics and textile floor coverings, the specimen should be at least 14 cm × 5 cm.
Separate specimens are taken for dry rubbing and wet rubbing.
One specimen is taken with its long direction parallel to the warp, or direction of manufacture, and another parallel to the
weft, or at right angles to the direction of manufacture.
This is important because rubbing behaviour may differ in warp and weft directions. In woven fabrics, yarn structure,
surface hairiness, floats, finishing and print placement may not be identical in both directions.
For yarn or thread, it may be knitted or woven into fabric, or arranged as parallel strands on a cardboard rectangle to prepare
the test specimen.
Dry rubbing test
In the dry rubbing test, a dry rubbing cloth is fixed over the rubbing finger of the testing device. The specimen is rubbed
in a straight line along a 10 cm track, 10 times to and fro in 10 seconds.
The force applied depends on the type of textile being tested:
22 N for pile fabrics
9 N for other textiles
After rubbing, the cotton cloth is examined for staining. Loose dyed fibres pulled out during rubbing should not be mistaken
for actual dye staining. The assessment should consider colouration due to staining by dyestuff.
Wet rubbing test
The wet rubbing test is similar, but the rubbing cloth is first wetted with water. The cloth should have about
100% water take-up. After rubbing, the cloth is dried at room temperature and then assessed for staining.
Wet rubbing is often more severe than dry rubbing. Many fabrics that pass dry rubbing may show lower performance in wet rubbing,
especially dark shades, pigment prints, indigo-dyed fabrics and poorly after-treated dyed materials.
Multicoloured fabrics
When testing multicoloured textiles, the specimen should be positioned so that all colours in the design are rubbed during
the test. If the colour areas are large enough, separate specimens may be taken and each colour assessed separately.
This point is very useful for printed sarees, dress materials, dupattas and furnishing fabrics. A single rubbing result may not
represent the whole design if one colour is fast and another colour is weak.
Rating and reporting
The staining of the rubbing cotton cloth is assessed using the grey scale for staining. The report should give numerical ratings
separately for dry staining and wet staining, and for each direction of manufacture.
Test condition
Direction
Rating
Dry rubbing
Warp direction
4–5
Dry rubbing
Weft direction
4
Wet rubbing
Warp direction
3
Wet rubbing
Weft direction
2–3
In general interpretation, a higher grey scale rating indicates less staining and better fastness, while a lower rating indicates
more staining and poorer fastness.
Visual 3: Grey scale rating interpretation — higher rating means less staining and better rubbing fastness. AI generated- may have mistakes in details.
Special problem in pile fabrics
Pile fabrics can create a difficulty known as haloing, where heavier staining appears around the circumference
of the stained area. The larger 3.2 cm rubbing finger can reduce haloing in many pile fabrics, although
assessment may still be difficult for high-pile fabrics.
This is relevant for carpets, velvets, towels, blankets and certain upholstery fabrics. Their raised surface behaves differently
from flat woven or knitted fabrics.
Practical meaning for textile buyers and merchandisers
For a buyer, rubbing fastness is not just a laboratory number. It has direct customer implications.
A dark saree with poor rubbing fastness can stain a blouse. A printed dupatta can stain the neck or kurta.
A dark upholstery fabric can stain light garments. A poor pigment print can leave colour on hands.
Denim with poor rubbing fastness can stain bags, shoes and car seats.
Therefore, rubbing fastness should be checked carefully in:
Dark dyed fabrics
Indigo and denim-like fabrics
Pigment printed fabrics
Sarees with strong contrast colours
Upholstery and home textile fabrics
Pile fabrics and carpets
Fabrics expected to rub against skin or lighter garments
Common mistakes in understanding rubbing fastness
One mistake is to think that only washing fastness matters. A fabric may not bleed badly in washing but may still stain during rubbing.
Another mistake is to look only at dry rubbing. Wet rubbing is equally important because garments are often used in humid conditions,
during perspiration, or after partial wetting.
A third mistake is to test only one part of a multicoloured fabric. In printed textiles, each colour may behave differently.
A fourth mistake is to ignore direction. Warp-way and weft-way rubbing results may differ, especially in fabrics with surface texture,
floats or pile.
Knowledge nugget
Rubbing fastness is a surface-performance test. It tells us how well the colour is held on the textile surface when mechanical friction is applied.
This is why rubbing fastness is often a problem in dark shades, pigment prints and fabrics where dye fixation, washing-off or finishing
has not been properly controlled.
Conclusion
The rubbing fastness test is one of the most practical colour fastness tests in textiles. It simulates a real-life action:
one surface rubbing against another.
IS 766:1988 standardizes this test by defining the specimen size, rubbing cloth, rubbing force, rubbing distance, number of strokes,
dry and wet conditions, and method of assessment.
For students, it teaches how laboratory testing connects to consumer use. For merchandisers and buyers, it gives a simple but powerful
quality checkpoint. And for manufacturers, it reminds us that colour is not only about beauty — it is also about durability in actual use.
Suggested visuals to accompany this article
Colour Fastness to Rubbing Test Overview:
A labelled diagram showing fabric specimen, white rubbing cloth, rubbing finger, rubbing direction and grey scale assessment.
Dry vs Wet Rubbing Fastness:
A comparison visual showing dry rubbing cloth and wetted rubbing cloth, with examples of lighter and heavier staining.
Grey Scale Interpretation Chart:
A simple educational chart explaining that rating 5 means no or negligible staining, while rating 1 means heavy staining.
Source
Based on IS 766:1988, Indian Standard method for determination of colour fastness of textile materials to rubbing.
General disclaimer
This article is written for educational and general understanding purposes only. The explanations simplify the testing method for
students, merchandisers and textile professionals. For official testing, certification, dispute resolution, legal compliance or
commercial acceptance, the original relevant Indian Standard and accredited laboratory procedures should be referred to.
In traditional methods in India, printing is essentially carried in three steps:
1. Preparation of the Cloth 2. Mordanting 3. Dyeing
1. First of all the cloth is prepared by applying tannin.
2. A thickened mordant is printed on this tannin treated cloth in the desired pattern.
3. The cloth is then dyed so that dyestuff attaches itself to those parts of the cloth to which mordant has been applied.
Thus the various processes are:
a. Tanning of fabric b. printing of mordant c. fixing of the modant d. washing out the excess of fixing agent e. dyeing f. washing and soaping.
Harda or Myrobalan is used in India as a tanning agent for dyeing and printing with natural colours.
It is applied on scoured cotton fabric in cold ( 10-40 gpl) using conventional method of tub dip wherein the Harda powder is replenished with each piece added to the bath.
After drying various metallic salts such as alum or ferrous sulphate are printed on the fabric either separately or in mixtures.
It is then subsequently dyed with madder root ( Manjith), pometranate rind, kusum flowers and other vegetable dyes.
