What is the difference of Modal from Viscose

What Is the Difference Between Modal and Viscose?

Modal is often described casually as “better viscose” or “a softer form of rayon.” That statement is partly correct, but it is not complete enough for a textile student, merchandiser or quality professional.

Both viscose and modal belong to the family of regenerated cellulose fibres. Both begin with cellulose, generally obtained from wood pulp, and both are manufactured by dissolving cellulose and regenerating it again into fibre form. Therefore, the difference is not that viscose is synthetic and modal is natural. Both are man-made cellulosic fibres.

The real difference lies in wet strength, wet modulus, dimensional stability, and behaviour during use and washing. Modal was developed to overcome some of the important limitations of ordinary viscose, especially its weakness and deformability in wet condition.

Simple answer: Viscose is a regenerated cellulose fibre known for softness, absorbency, drape and affordability. Modal is a modified high-wet-modulus regenerated cellulose fibre designed to retain better strength and shape when wet.

Table of Contents

1. What Is Viscose?
2. What Is Modal?
3. Is Modal a Brand Name or a Generic Fibre Name?
4. Why Was Modal Developed?
5. The Main Technical Difference: Wet Modulus
6. Modal vs Viscose: Comparison Table
7. Is Modal Stronger Than Viscose?
8. Why Does Modal Feel Soft?
9. Can Modal Be Blended With Other Fibres?
10. Is Modern Viscose Now Identical to Modal?
11. Is Modal More Sustainable Than Viscose?
12. Practical Meaning for Merchandisers
13. Common Misunderstandings
14. Final Summary
15. Sources

1. What Is Viscose?

Viscose is one of the most widely used man-made cellulosic fibres. It is popular because it gives a soft feel, good absorbency, attractive drape and comfort similar to natural cellulosic fibres such as cotton.

In fabric form, viscose can look elegant and flow beautifully. That is why it is widely used in dresses, sarees, kurtas, scarves, linings, tops, printed fabrics and many other fashion products.

However, ordinary viscose has one important weakness: it loses a significant part of its strength when wet. When viscose fabric is wet, the fibre becomes more sensitive to stretching, distortion and dimensional change. This is why viscose garments often require careful washing, gentle squeezing and controlled drying.

The key limitation of viscose is not softness. Viscose is soft. The limitation is its wet mechanical behaviour.

2. What Is Modal?

Modal is also a regenerated cellulose fibre, but it should not be treated as ordinary viscose with a fashionable name. Technically, modal is a high-wet-modulus regenerated cellulose fibre.

The phrase “high wet modulus” is very important. In simple terms, modulus refers to the resistance of a fibre to extension under load. A low-modulus fibre stretches more easily, while a higher-modulus fibre resists stretching better.

When we say high wet modulus, we mean that the fibre resists stretching and deformation better when it is wet. This is the central reason modal behaves better during washing, wet processing and repeated use.

In a simplified form, the idea of modulus can be represented as:

\[ \text{Modulus} = \frac{\text{Stress}}{\text{Strain}} \]

In practical textile language, a fibre with higher wet modulus will resist deformation better in wet condition. Modal is valued because it gives the comfort of regenerated cellulose while improving one of the biggest weaknesses of ordinary viscose.

3. Is Modal a Brand Name or a Generic Fibre Name?

Modal is a generic fibre name. It is not a company-specific name in the way that a trademark or brand name is company-specific.

This clarification is important because many consumers know modal through commercial names such as TENCEL™ Modal or LENZING™ Modal. In such cases, TENCEL™ or LENZING™ is the brand or company identifier, while modal is the generic fibre type.

Generic fibre name	Brand or company example
Modal	TENCEL™ Modal, LENZING™ Modal
Lyocell	TENCEL™ Lyocell
Viscose	LENZING™ ECOVERO™ Viscose
Polyester	Trevira, Dacron and other branded forms

Therefore, it is better to say that Lenzing is a major producer of branded modal fibres, not that modal itself belongs exclusively to Lenzing.

4. Why Was Modal Developed?

Ordinary viscose has many advantages. It is soft, absorbent, comfortable, drapey and dyeable. But it also has important limitations: lower wet strength, easy stretching in wet condition, poorer dimensional stability, and a greater need for care during laundering.

Modal was developed to improve these limitations. It gives the softness and absorbency of regenerated cellulose, but with better wet strength and better shape retention.

This makes modal especially suitable for garments that are worn close to the body and washed frequently, such as innerwear, T-shirts, tops, loungewear, nightwear, babywear and soft knitted fabrics.

5. The Main Technical Difference: Wet Modulus

The most important difference between modal and ordinary viscose is wet modulus. Ordinary viscose has a relatively low initial modulus. It can stretch under comparatively low load, especially in wet condition.

Modal has a higher wet modulus. This means it resists stretching better when wet. The result is better dimensional stability, better laundering behaviour and better resistance to wet deformation.

This does not mean that modal is indestructible. It is still a cellulosic fibre. Its performance also depends on fibre quality, yarn quality, fabric construction, dyeing, finishing and garment care. But compared with ordinary viscose, modal is designed to perform better under wet conditions.

6. Modal vs Viscose: Comparison Table

Property	Ordinary Viscose	Modal
Fibre family	Regenerated cellulose	Regenerated cellulose
Generic status	Generic fibre name	Generic fibre name
Process family	Viscose process	Modified viscose-route process
Wet strength	Lower	Higher
Wet modulus	Lower	Higher
Stretching when wet	More likely	Less likely
Shape retention	Comparatively weaker	Better
Shrinkage control	Needs more care	Generally better
Handle	Soft, smooth and drapey	Soft, smooth and often silkier
Dyeability	Good	Good
Absorbency	Good	Good to very good
Common uses	Dresses, sarees, tops, linings and scarves	Innerwear, T-shirts, loungewear, tops and blends
Main advantage	Drape, comfort and affordability	Wet strength, softness and dimensional stability
Main limitation	Weakness and deformation in wet condition	Usually costlier than ordinary viscose

7. Is Modal Stronger Than Viscose?

Modal is generally stronger than ordinary viscose, especially in wet condition. This is the most meaningful performance difference between the two fibres.

In dry condition, the actual strength depends on the fibre specification, yarn count, spinning method, fabric construction and finishing. But when wet, ordinary viscose loses strength more noticeably. Modal was specifically developed to reduce this weakness.

For example, a modal-rich knitted fabric used in innerwear or loungewear can give softness while maintaining better shape over repeated washing. A similar fabric made from ordinary viscose may feel soft but can be more vulnerable to stretching, distortion or poor recovery.

8. Why Does Modal Feel Soft?

Modal fibres are known for their smooth, soft and pleasant touch. This softness comes from the fibre’s cellulosic nature, smooth surface, fine fibre structure and good moisture absorption.

Modal is often compared with cotton and mercerised cotton because it can give a smooth and comfortable handle. It may also show good lustre, softness and drape depending on the fibre, yarn, fabric construction and finishing.

However, fibre name alone does not guarantee luxury. A poorly made modal fabric can still perform badly, and a well-made viscose fabric can still look and feel excellent. Final fabric feel depends on fibre quality, yarn count, twist level, knitting or weaving structure, GSM, dyeing, finishing, blending ratio and garment construction.

9. Can Modal Be Blended With Other Fibres?

Modal can be blended with many textile fibres, including cotton, polyester, wool, silk, elastane and other regenerated cellulose fibres. Common blends include modal-cotton, modal-elastane, modal-polyester, modal-viscose, modal-lyocell, modal-wool and modal-silk.

Blending is done to balance comfort, cost, strength, stretch, appearance, moisture behaviour and garment performance. For example, modal with elastane is popular in innerwear and loungewear because modal gives softness and absorbency, while elastane gives stretch and recovery.

10. Is Modern Viscose Now Identical to Modal?

No. Modern viscose has certainly improved. Producers now make better-quality viscose fibres with improved uniformity, better process control, improved sustainability claims and better wet-processing behaviour.

However, modern viscose does not automatically become modal. Modal has a specific fibre definition based on high wet modulus and high breaking strength. Unless a regenerated cellulose fibre meets the modal specification, it remains viscose or another appropriate generic category.

Correct statement: Modern viscose may be improved, but it is not identical to modal. Modal remains a separate high-wet-modulus regenerated cellulose fibre category.

11. Is Modal More Sustainable Than Viscose?

This question needs careful handling. Modal is often marketed as a more sustainable fibre, especially when it is made from responsibly sourced wood and produced by companies with good chemical recovery systems.

But it is not correct to make a blanket statement that modal is sustainable and viscose is not. Both modal and viscose are man-made cellulosic fibres. Their environmental impact depends on wood or pulp sourcing, forest certification, chemical management, carbon disulfide control, water use, energy use, wastewater treatment, producer transparency and supply-chain traceability.

A better statement is: modal can be a better-performing regenerated cellulose fibre, but its sustainability depends on sourcing, manufacturing practices, chemical recovery and certification.

12. Practical Meaning for Merchandisers

For merchandisers, modal should not be treated only as a fancy word on a label. It has practical implications for quality, garment performance and customer expectation.

When buying modal fabrics or garments, check the blend percentage first. Is the fabric 100% modal, modal-cotton, modal-elastane or only a small percentage of modal? A garment with a small modal percentage should not be described as if its entire behaviour is determined by modal.

Next, check the fabric construction. A modal single jersey, modal rib, modal interlock, modal woven fabric and modal blend fabric will all behave differently. GSM, yarn count, twist, loop length, finishing and garment construction can change performance significantly.

Ask for dimensional stability after washing, pilling performance, colour fastness to washing, rubbing and perspiration, and stretch recovery if elastane is present. If sustainability is claimed, ask for traceability and certification rather than relying only on the fibre name.

13. Common Misunderstandings

Misunderstanding 1: Modal is natural, viscose is synthetic.

This is not correct. Both are regenerated cellulose fibres. They begin from natural cellulose but are chemically processed and manufactured into fibre form.

Misunderstanding 2: Modal is only a brand name.

This is not correct. Modal is a generic fibre name. Some companies sell branded modal fibres, but modal itself is not company-specific.

Misunderstanding 3: Modal and viscose are now the same because modern viscose has improved.

This is not correct. Modern viscose may be better than older viscose, but modal remains a separate high-wet-modulus fibre category.

Misunderstanding 4: Modal never shrinks or pills.

This is not correct. Modal generally has better dimensional stability than ordinary viscose, but shrinkage and pilling depend on yarn, fabric construction, finishing, washing and garment care.

Misunderstanding 5: Modal is always sustainable.

Not necessarily. Sustainability depends on pulp sourcing, chemical recovery, manufacturing process, certification and traceability.

14. Final Summary

Viscose and modal are both regenerated cellulose fibres, but modal is a more advanced high-wet-modulus fibre designed to improve the wet strength and dimensional stability limitations of ordinary viscose.

Viscose is soft, absorbent, drapey and affordable, but it becomes weaker when wet. Modal retains better strength and resists stretching better in wet condition. This makes modal more suitable for garments that require softness along with repeated washing performance, such as innerwear, loungewear, T-shirts, tops and soft knitted apparel.

The best short explanation is: modal is not a completely different fibre family from viscose. It is a high-wet-modulus regenerated cellulose fibre developed to perform better than ordinary viscose, especially when wet.

One-line takeaway: Modal is a stronger, more wet-stable regenerated cellulose fibre, while viscose is the broader conventional regenerated cellulose fibre category.

Related Reading on Fibre Properties, Blends and Textile Testing

• How to Determine Fibre Composition in Blended Fabrics
• Determination of Linear Density of Textile Fibres: Understanding Fibre Fineness
• Mercerization: The Midas Touch That Makes Cotton Shine
• Why Combed Cotton is Better Than Carded Cotton

Sources

1. ISO 2076:2010. Textiles — Man-made fibres — Generic names. International Organization for Standardization.
2. BISFA. Terminology of Man-made Fibres. International Bureau for the Standardization of Man-made Fibres, 2017.
3. Textile Exchange. Modal. Textile Exchange Glossary.
4. Textile Exchange. Viscose. Textile Exchange Glossary.
5. Lenzing Group. Fiber Technologies: Explore Lenzing's Production Processes.

General Disclaimer

This article is intended for educational and general textile knowledge purposes only. Fibre behaviour can vary depending on producer, fibre specification, yarn quality, fabric construction, dyeing, finishing, garment processing and washing method. For commercial decisions, laboratory test reports, supplier technical data sheets and recognised national or international standards should be consulted.

Polyurethane Fibres ( Spandax, Lycra)

Polyurethane Fibres ( Spandax, Lycra)

Polyurethane is produced by action of butanediol and hexamethylene diisocyanate.

The polyurethane thus formed has rubber like properties. It gives an elastomeric fibre, which displays elasticity associated with natural rubber and hence can be stretched several times its original length and on releasing the stretching loads it will snap back quickly to recover its original length almost completely. Therefore polyurethane fibres are called snap back or elastomeric fibres.

Different Steps in Fiber Manufacture

Prepolymer Production:

The soft segments of the final polymer are formed in this step. The segments are the source of amorphous regions which permit unfolding of the molecular chains leading to the extension of the fibre under tensile stresses. These segments are made by normal condensation polymerisation techniques. These segments have hydroxy groups at the end.

Reaction Between prepolymers and Diisocyanate

The first prepolymer is reacted with excess of diisocyanate to form urethane groups in the molecular chains.

Segmented polyurethane production

In this step the hard segment is created by chain extension in which second prepolymer is treated with glycols or diamines.

Spinning

When the final polymer contain essentially linear macromolecules then it is dissolved in the solvent ( eg. DMF- Dimethyl Formamide) and extruded through spinnerettes into a coagulating bath ( water) as in wet spinning or into an atmosphere to remove the solvent as in dry spinning.

Properties

Strength: 0.55-1.0 gpd

Extension at Break: 520-610 %

Specific Gravity: 1.20-1.25

Set % at 600% stretch: 70%

Moisture Regain: 0.8-1.2

It is a thermoplastic fibres which sticks at 170 deg C and melts at 230 deg C

It has an excellent resistance to sunlight

It is resistant to insects and microorganisms.

It is resistant to common solvents such as dry cleaning solvents and saturated hydrocarbons.

Chemical Properties

It has good resistance to cold dilute Acids, Hot concentrated acids slightly yellow it.

It has a good resistance to weak and cold alkalies. It has good resistance to cosmetic oils and lotions. Chlorites and hypochlorites attack the fibre.

When heated the fibres fuse and do not shrink from the flame. They burn and produce soft fluffy black ash.

Polypropylene Fibres- Manufacturing Process

Polypropylene Fibres

Propylene is one of the constituents obtained from thermal or catalytic cracking of petroleum. Under suitable polymerising conditions, propylene produces fibres forming polypropylene.

Polymerisation: It is done by dissolving propylene in heptane using TiCl3Al(C2H5)3 catalyst system at about 100 deg C under a pressure of 30 Atm for 8 hours. The polymer has a molecular weight of about 80000.

Spinning : Polypropylene is melt spun. The filaments are extruded at 100 deg C above the melting point, cooled in air chamber and collected on bobbins. The filaments are hot drawn (polyethene- cold drawn) and twisted into yarns.


Properties:

1. PP fibres are colorless and have a smooth surface, with round cross section.

2. Tenacity- 4.5-6 gpd
Elongation at Break: 17-20 %
Elastic Properties at 2% extenstion: Instantenous
Stretch for 30 Seconds: 91%, delayed - 9%
Moisture Regain: Nil

3. Boiling water shrinks PP by about 15-20% in 20 minutes

4. Specific Gravity: 0.85-0.92

5. Softening point- 150 deg C, Melting Point: 160-170 deg C

6. PP is also attacked by atmospheric oxygen in presence of sunlight

7. It has excellent resistance to common organic solvents

8. It is resistant to insects and microorganisms

9. PP is generally resistant to common chemicals.

Polyethylene Fibres

Polyolefin fibres

Fibres made from polymers or copolymers of olefin hydrocarbons such as ethylene, propylene are called polyolefins.

Polyethylene: Of all the fibre forming polymers, polyethylene (made by addition polymerisation) Ch2==Ch2 has the simplest structure.

Manufacture: Ethylene is the principal raw material for producing polyethylene fibres. Ethylene gas is obtained by cracking petroleum.

Polymerisation: Ethylene is polymerised under severe conditions in autoclaves at 200 deg C and 1500 atmospheric pressure in the presence of traces (0.01%) of oxygen acting as a catalyst. The polymer resembles paraffin wax and is characterised by low density.

Spinning : Spinning of polyethylene is carried out by melt spinning. The polymer with a molecular weight of about 15,000 is spun from the melt at about 205 deg C and extended through a spinnerette of 0.1 mm diameter into a current of cooling gas. The filaments are cooled to 15 -60 deg C and stretched 4 to 10 times their original length. The drawn monofilaments are wound on spools.

Properties of polyethylene

a. Polyethylene fibre has a round cross section and has a smooth surface. Fibres made from low molecular weight polyethylene have a grease like handle.

b. Specific Gravity- 0.92
Tenacity - 1.0-1.5 gpd
Elongation at Break %- 45-50
Tensile Strength psi - 15000
Softening Range: deg C- 85-90

c The moisture regain of polyethylene is practically nil and hence moisture does not affect the mechanical properties of the fibres.

d. Polyethylene is insoluble in most of the common organic solvents at room temperature.

e. Polyethylene fibres have a high degree of resistance to acids and alkalies at all concentrations even at high temperature.

f. The fibre is generally inert and is resistant to wide range of chemicals at ordinary temperatures. They are attacked by oxidising agents.

Manufacturing Process and Properties of PVA

Polyvinyl Alcohol Fibres

Polyvinyl alcohol (water soluble compound) can be described as a polyhydric, having secondary alcoholic groups on alternate carbon atoms of an aliphatic macromolecule.

Because of the presence of a large number of hydroxy groups, in its molecular structure, it is soluble in water. This is solublised in water by a treatment with formaldehyde.

Manufacture of Polyvinyl Alcohol


1. Production of acetic acid from acetylene

For this purpose, limestone is calcinated to give quicklime (CaO) which is treated with coke at elevated temperature to form calciium carbide. Acetylene is generated by treating calcium carbide with water. A part of acetylene is converted into acetic acidby combined hydration and oxidation.

Synthesis of Vinyl Acetate

The acetic acid formed in the above step is reacted with acetylene in the presence of zinc acetate catalyst when vinyl acetate is formed.

Polymerisation of Vinyl Acetate

A solution of vinyl acetate in methanol is used for the polymerisation of vinyl acetate in the presence of a peroxide or azo compound as a catalyst.

Conversion of PVAcetate into PVA

NaOH is added in PV Acetate solution in methanol, when alcoholysis of the acetate groups takes place.

Spinning

The precipitated PVA as obtained in the preceding step is pressed and dried. It is then dissolved in water to give a 15% solution of the polymer. This solution is extruded into a spinning bath containing sulphuric acid ( 20%), Glauber's Salt ( 25%), formaldehyde (5%) and water (50%)

Properties

Shrinkage Properties: 10% at 220-230 deg C.

At 220 deg c, It begins to turn yellow and shrinks.

The fiber is inert to animal, vegetable and mineral oils and to most common organic solvents.

It has good resistance to acids under normal conditions, Hot or concentrated mineral acids cause swelling and shrinkage. Its resistance to alkali is generally good. Strong alkalies cause yellowing without affecting the tenacity.

Fabrics made from this fibre do not get solied easily. They are easy to wash and quick to dry. They have good crease retention.


Specific Gravity: 1.28

	Staple	Filament
Tenacity ( GPD)
Dry	3.8-6.2	6.0-8.5
Wet	3.2-5.0	5.0-7.6
Elongation at Break
Dry	13-26%	9-22%
Wet	14-27%	10-26%
Elastic Recovery	65-85%	70-90%
Moisture Regain	4.5-5%	3-5%

Polyvinyl Chloride- Manufacturing Process and Properties

Polyvinyl Chloride (Vinyon)

Fibre Manufacture:

Vinyl Chloride is the principal raw material from which polyvinyl chloride is made by addition polymerisation. There are two methods commonly used for the production of vinyl chloride:

1. Ethylene+ chlorine--> Ethylene Dichloride--600 deg C--> Vinyl chloride +HCl

or

Cl-CH2-CH2-Cl--300deg C +Charcoal--> Vinyl Chloride + HCl

or

Cl-CH2-CH2-Cl--CH3OH+NaOH (60 deg C)--> vinyl Chloride + NaCl+ H2

2. Acetylene +HCL--150 deg C, HgCl--> CH2=CHCl (Vinyl Chloride)

Polymerisation

the vinyl chloride monomer is polymerised in the emulsion form in an autoclave at a pressure of 50 Atm and at a temperature of 65 deg C. A suspension of the polymer is obtained which is then spray dried.

Spinning

This may be done by dry spinning or wet spinning.

1. Dry Spinning: In the dry spinning process the polymer is dissolved in a mixture of CS2 and acetone, filtered and pumped at 70 deg to 100 deg through spinnerettes into a chamber, provided with heated walls, and into which air is introduced. The solvent evaporating from the extruded filaments is carried away by the air. At the bottom of the chamber the solvent free filaments are removed through a fine orifice and wound on a bobbin. The solvent is recovered and used again. the filaments are stretched to ensure that the molecular chains get oriented and the fibres become stronger and attain less extension at break, increased brightness, transparency etc.

2. Wet Spinning: In the wet spinning process, PVC is dissolved in THF (Tetra Hydro Furon) to give a highly concentrated solution, which is spun into water, through a stretch spinning funnel. The filaments ar stretched and cut into staple fibres.

Properties

1. Tenacity: Wet or Dry: 2.7-3 gpd
2. Elongation at BreaK: Wet or Dry: 12-20 %
3. Moisture Content: 0
4. Specific Gravity: 1.4

v. Effect of Heat: It contracts at temperatures above 78 deg C and shrinks to half its original length at 100 deg C.

vi. It has an excellent resistance to sunlight. It is completely resistant to insects and microorganisms. It is inherently non-flammable.

vii. It is exceptionally resistant to caustic soda, nitric acid and sulphuric acid. It has outstanding resistance to many chemicals including bleaching agents, reducing agents.

Acrylic- Manufacturing Process and Properties

Polyacrilonitrile ( Acrylic)

vinyl Cyanide, more commonly known as acrylonitrile, can under go addition polymerisation to form polyacrylonitrile.

Raw Material

Acrilonitrile is the main main raw material for the manufacture of acrylic fibres. It is made by different methods. In one commercial method, hydrogen cyanide is treated with acetylene:

acetylene + Hydrogen cyanide --> Acrilonitrile

2nd Method

Ethylene--Air Oxidation--> Ethylene oxide + HCN--> Ethylene cyanahydrin--Dehydration at 300 deg C (catalyst)--> Acrylonitrile

In a continuous polymerisation process, 95% acrylonitrile and 6% methyl acrylate (400 parts) 0.25% aqueous solution of K2S2O8(600 parts), 0.50 % Na2S2O5 solution ( 600 Parts) and 2N sulphuric acid (2.5 Parts) are fed into the reaction vessel at 52 deg C under nitrogen atmosphere giving a slurry with 67% polymer. The slurry is continuously withdrawn, filtered and washed till it is free from salts and dried.

Acrilonitrile is dry spun. The material is dissolved in dimethyl formamide, the solution contains 10-20 polymers. It is heated and extruded into a heated spinning cell. A heated evaporating medium such as air, nitrogen or steam moves counter current to the travel of filaments and removes the solvent to take it to a recovery unit. The filaments are hot stretched at 100 to 250 C depending on the time of contact in the hot zone, to several times their original length.

Properties of Acrylic Fibres

1. Acrylic has a warm and dry hand like wool. Its density is 1.17 g/cc as compared to 1.32 g/cc of wool. It is about 30% bulkier than wool. It has about 20% greater insulating power than wool.

2. Acrylic has a moisture regain of 1.5-2% at 65% RH and 70 deg F.

3. It has a tenacity of 5 gpd in dry state and 4-8 gpd in wet state.

4. Breaking elongation is 15% ( both states)

5. It has a elastic recovery of 85% after 4% extension when the load is released immediately.

6. It has a good thermal stability. When exposed to temperatures above 175 deg C for prolonged periods some discolouration takes place.

7. Acrylic shrinks by about 1.5% when treated with boiling water for 30 min.

8. It has a good resistance to mineral acids. The resistance to weak alkalies is fairly good, while hot strong alkalies rapidly attack acrylic.

9. Moths, Mildew and insects do not attack Acrylic.

10. It has an outstanding stability towards commonly bleaching agents.

Uses

1. Knit Jersey, Sweater, blankets
2. Wrinkle resistant fabrics.
3. Pile and Fleece fabrics
4. Carpets and rugs.

Properties of Polyester

Tenacity (gpd)	High Tenacity	Normal Tenacity	Staple
Dry	6-7	4.5-5.5	3.5-4
Wet	6-7	4.5-5.5	3.5-4
Elongation (%)
Dry	12.5-7.5	25-15	40-25
Wet	12.5-7.5	25-15	40-25
Density	1.38	1.38	1.38

Moisture Regain

At 65% RH and 70 deg F--> 0.4%

Because of low moisture regain, it develops static charge. Garments of polyester fibres get soiled easily during wear.

Thermal Properties

Polyester fibres are most thermally stable of all synthetic fibres. As with all thermoplastic fibres, its tenacity decreases and elongation increases with rise in temperature. When ignited, polyester fibre burns with difficulty.

Shrinkage

Polyester shrinks approx 7% when immersed in an unrestrained state in boiling water. Like other textile fibres, polyester fibres undergo degradation when exposed to sunlight.

Its biological resistance is good as it is not a nutrient for microorganisms.

Swelling and Dissolving

The fibre swells in 2% solution of benzoic acid, salycylic acid and phenol.

Alcohols, Ketones, soaps, detergents and drycleaning solvents have no chemical action on polyester fibres.

Chemical Resistance

Polyester fibres have a high resistance to organic and mineral acids. Weak acids do not harm even at boil. Similarly strong acids including hydrofluoric acids do not attack the fibres appreciably in the cold.

Uses of Polyester

1. Woven and Knitted Fabrics, especially blends.
2. Conveyor belts, tyre cords, tarpaulines etc.
3. For filling pillows
4. For paper making machine
5. Insulating tapes
6. Hose pipe with rubber or PVC
7. Ropes, fish netting and sail cloth.

Manufacturing Process of Polyester

Manufacture of Polyester

These fibres are also known as Terylene, Terene, Dacron etc.

These fibres are synthetic textile fibres of high polymers which are obtained by esterification of dicarboxylic acids, with glycols or by ester exchange reactions between dicarboxylic acid esters and glycols.

Thus Terylene is made by polymerising using ester exchange reation between dimethyl teraphthlate and ethylene glycol.

Raw Materials

The main raw materials required for the manufacture of Terylene polyester fibres are p-xylene ethylene glycol and methanol.

or Dacron ( Du Pont ) is produced by polycondensation reaction using Teraphthaleic Acid (TPA) and Ethylene Glocol

Manufacture of TPA

P-xylene-- Air, nitric Acid-->P-Toluic Acid--> Teraphthaleic Acid

Manufacture of DMT

p-xylene--Air 200 degC, co-toluate--> Toluic Acid--Ch3OH--> Monomethyl toluate--oxidation--> Monomethyl teraphthalate--CH3OH--> DMT

The use of Dimethyl Teraphthalate is preferred instead of Teraphthalic acid as the purity of the reacting chemicals is essential and it is easier to purify DMT than teraphthalic acid.

Manufacture of Ethylene Glycol

Ethylene--Oxidation with air-->Ethylene Oxide--Hydrolysis-->Ethylene Glycol
or
Ethylene--Hypochlorous Acid HOCl--> Ethylene Chlorohydrin--Alkaline Hydrolysis--> Ethylene Glycol

Production


The polymer is made by heating teraphthalic acid with excess of ethylene glycol ( Both of high priority) in an atmosphere of nitrogen initially at atmospheric pressure. A catalyst like hydrochloric acid speeds up the reaction.

The resulting low molecular weight ethylene glycol teraphthalate is then heated at 280 deg C for 30 minutes at atmospheric pressure and then for 10 hours under vacuum. The excess of ethylene glycol is distilled off. the ester can polymerise now to form a product of high molecular weight. The resulting polymer is hard and almost white substance, melting at 256 deg C and has a molecular weight of 8000-10000. Filaments are prepared from this.

Spinning of Polyester Fibres

The polymer is extruded in the form of a ribbon. This ribbon is then converted into chips.

The wet chips are dried and fed through a hopper, ready for melting. This molten polymer is then extruded under high pressure through spinnerettes down to cylinder.

Each spinnerette contains 24 or so holes. A spinning finish is applied at this stage as a lubricant and an antistatic agent. The undrawn yarn is then wound onto cylinders.

This yarn goes to the drawing zone, where draw twist machines draw it to about four times their original length. This is hot drawn in contrast to cold drawing of nylon filaments.

For the production of staple fibres, the filaments are first brought together to from a thick tow. These are distributed in large cans. The tow is drawn to get correct strength. Then it is passed through a crimping machines, the crimps being stabilized by heating in ovens. It is then cut into specified lengths and baled ready for despatch.

Properties of Nylon 6

Properties of Nylon 6

Nylon 6 has certain advantages over Nylon 6,6,. Firstly the systheisi fo caprolectum is easier than that of Hexamethylene Diamine and Adipic Acid. Therefore it is cheaper to make Nylon 6 than Nylon6,6. Secondly Nylon 6 has greater affinity for acid dyes than Nylon6,6,

Mechanical Properties

Density: 1.14 g/cc
Tenacity: Dry= 4.2-5.8 gpd, Wet=4.0-5.3 gpd
Elongation at Break--> Dry = 24-40, Wet=28-43
Elastic Recovery at 4% extension= 100%
Moisture Regain= 4%
Because of low MR, wet nylon dries quickly.
Melting Point= 215 deg C ( Nylon 66-250 deg C)
It is weakened by prolonged exposure to sunlight.

Chemical Properties

1. It is resistant to most organic acids such as benzene, chloroform, acetone, esters ethers etc.

2. It dissolves in phenol, cresol and strong mineral acids.

3. good resistant towards alkalies.

4. Resistant to inorganic acids

These fibres are cylinderical in shape, with smooth surfaces and without having any markings. The fibres are unifrom in diameter and appear round in cross section.

Uses


a. Tyre Cord Manufacturing
b. Fishing Lines
c. Luxury Yachts
d. Stockings with good fit, sheerness, quick washing and drying properties.

Manufacturing Process of Nylon 6

Manufacturing Process of Nylon 6

Nylon Manufactured in India at present is of this type. This is made from Caprolactum which is made by a series of reactions using products obtained from coal tar

Coal Tar--> Benzene--Chlorine--> Chlorobenzene--> Sodium Phenate--HCL--> Phenol--H2 (Nickel)-->Cyclohexanol--Oxidation Air Fe, Zn Catalyst--> Cyclohexanone--> Cyclohexanone Oxime--H2SO4--> Caprolectum

Polymerisation

Caprolectum is a white flaky solid, melting at 68 deg C and is soluble in water. the polymerisation is carried out in stainless steel cylinders.

Hot Caprolectum is mixed with a suspension of pigment, acid promotor and acid chain stopper. The extent of polymerisation depends upon the temperature of polymerisation. The purpose of acid chain stopper is to stop furthur polymerisation so that a desired density of molten polymer may be obtained.

The molten polymer is extruded into ribbons and cut into chips. These chips are used for the production of continuous filaments.

Melt Spinning

Continuous filaments are made by melt spinning. Dry polymer chips are fed to a melt spinning apparatus, wherein one section of the chips fall, into a melting region where they are heated electrically to 250-260 deg C. The molten polymer flows into a conical section to form a pool, which feeds a spinning pump and spinnerette. The pool is kept under an atmosphere of nitrogen to prevent decomposition by air.

The molten polymer leaving the pump is filtered before entering the spinnerette which is a stainless steel disc having a number of holes, the number and diameter of which determine the type of yarn formed. Before reaching the machine in which cheese is build up, the filaments are moistened with water to ensure dimensional stability of the final packages.

The yarn thus formed is not strong enough and has a very high extensibility. the yarn contains a large number of macro molecules which are unoriented and these must be oriented so as to lie parallel to the length of the fibre to develop full strength. This is done by stretching the yarn to 3-4 times its original length.

Manufacturing Process of Nylon 6,6

Nylon 6,6 is one of the most important synthetic fibres used in textiles and industrial products. It belongs to the polyamide family and is produced by the reaction of two chemicals: hexamethylene diamine and adipic acid.

The name Nylon 6,6 comes from the fact that both the starting chemicals contain six carbon atoms. Hexamethylene diamine contributes six carbon atoms, and adipic acid also contributes six carbon atoms. When these two materials react, they form a long-chain polymer called polyhexamethylene adipamide, commonly known as Nylon 6,6.

Table of Contents

1. Raw Materials Used in Nylon 6,6
2. Chemical Reaction of Nylon 6,6
3. Manufacturing Process Flow
4. Polymerisation of Nylon 6,6
5. Melt Spinning of Nylon 6,6
6. Drawing of Nylon 6,6 Filaments
7. Important Process Control Points
8. Applications of Nylon 6,6
9. Nylon 6 and Nylon 6,6: Basic Difference
10. Frequently Asked Questions

1. Raw Materials Used in Nylon 6,6

The two main raw materials used in the manufacture of Nylon 6,6 are:

Raw Material	Chemical Nature	Role in Nylon 6,6 Formation
Hexamethylene diamine	Diamine compound	Provides amine groups required for amide bond formation.
Adipic acid	Dicarboxylic acid	Provides carboxylic acid groups required for amide bond formation.

For producing high molecular weight Nylon 6,6, the two raw materials must be combined in nearly equal molecular proportion. If one material is present in excess, the polymer chain may terminate early, resulting in lower molecular weight and weaker fibre properties.

2. Chemical Reaction of Nylon 6,6

Nylon 6,6 is formed by condensation polymerisation. In this reaction, the amine group of hexamethylene diamine reacts with the carboxylic acid group of adipic acid. During this reaction, amide linkages are formed and water is eliminated as a by-product.

The simplified reaction may be written as:

\( nH_2N-(CH_2)_6-NH_2 + nHOOC-(CH_2)_4-COOH \rightarrow [-NH-(CH_2)_6-NH-CO-(CH_2)_4-CO-]_n + H_2O \)

The important point is not merely the formula, but the formation of repeated amide linkages. These amide linkages are responsible for many characteristic properties of Nylon 6,6, such as strength, abrasion resistance, resilience and heat resistance.

Technical note: Nylon 6,6 is a polyamide. The word polyamide means a polymer containing many amide linkages in its molecular chain.

3. Manufacturing Process Flow

The manufacturing process of Nylon 6,6 may be understood in the following sequence:

Hexamethylene diamine + Adipic acid → Nylon salt → Polymerisation → Nylon polymer → Chips → Melt spinning → Cooling → Drawing → Winding

In industrial practice, the process is carefully controlled because fibre quality depends not only on the chemistry but also on melting, filtration, extrusion, cooling, drawing and winding conditions.

4. Polymerisation of Nylon 6,6

The first important stage is the preparation of nylon salt. Hexamethylene diamine and adipic acid are mixed in water to form a salt. This salt helps in maintaining the correct balance between the amine and acid groups.

The nylon salt solution is then concentrated by removing water. After this, it is heated under controlled conditions so that polymerisation can take place. As the reaction proceeds, long polymer chains are formed. Water produced during the reaction must be removed so that the reaction can continue in the forward direction.

The molten polymer may then be extruded and cut into chips. These chips are later used for fibre spinning. In some continuous processes, the molten polymer may also be taken directly for spinning.

Practical understanding: Polymerisation creates the fibre-forming material. Spinning converts that material into filaments. Drawing improves the strength and orientation of those filaments.

5. Melt Spinning of Nylon 6,6

Nylon 6,6 is generally spun by the melt spinning process. In melt spinning, the nylon polymer chips are first dried and then melted. The molten polymer is forced through a spinneret, which is a metal plate containing a number of very fine holes.

As the molten nylon comes out of the spinneret, it appears in the form of fine continuous filaments. These filaments are cooled by air and solidify quickly. The number, size and shape of spinneret holes influence the fineness and cross-sectional character of the filaments.

During spinning, the molten polymer should be protected from unnecessary contact with oxygen because oxidation and degradation can affect the quality of the polymer. For this reason, inert conditions such as nitrogen atmosphere may be used in some systems.

6. Drawing of Nylon 6,6 Filaments

The filaments obtained immediately after spinning are not fully strong. Their molecular chains are not yet sufficiently aligned along the fibre axis. Therefore, the filaments are drawn after spinning.

Drawing means stretching the filaments under controlled conditions. During drawing, the molecular chains become more oriented in the direction of the fibre length. This increases tensile strength, improves dimensional stability and gives the filament better textile performance.

In a typical drawing arrangement, the yarn passes through one set of rollers running at a lower speed and then through another set of rollers running at a higher speed. The difference in roller speed stretches the yarn. The draw ratio may vary depending on the required final properties of the fibre.

After drawing, the filament yarn may be wound on a package. Depending on the end use, it may also be twisted, textured or further processed.

7. Important Process Control Points

The quality of Nylon 6,6 fibre depends on several process control points. Some of the most important are given below:

Process Stage	Control Point	Why It Matters
Raw material preparation	Correct ratio of diamine and acid	Helps in forming high molecular weight polymer.
Polymerisation	Removal of water	Drives the condensation reaction forward.
Chip preparation	Drying of chips	Moisture can create defects during melt spinning.
Melt spinning	Temperature and viscosity control	Ensures smooth flow through the spinneret.
Cooling	Uniform quenching	Prevents uneven filament structure.
Drawing	Draw ratio and roller speed	Controls strength, elongation and molecular orientation.
Winding	Package tension	Prevents yarn damage and package defects.

8. Applications of Nylon 6,6

Nylon 6,6 is used in both textile and industrial applications. Its strength, abrasion resistance and resilience make it suitable for demanding end uses.

Area	Examples
Apparel	Hosiery, sportswear, linings and lightweight fabrics.
Home textiles	Carpets and upholstery fabrics.
Industrial textiles	Tyre cords, ropes, conveyor belts, nets and sewing threads.
Engineering uses	Moulded parts, gears, bearings and other components where strength and wear resistance are needed.

9. Nylon 6 and Nylon 6,6: Basic Difference

Nylon 6 and Nylon 6,6 are both polyamide fibres, but they are made from different raw materials. Nylon 6 is made from caprolactam, whereas Nylon 6,6 is made from hexamethylene diamine and adipic acid.

Point of Difference	Nylon 6	Nylon 6,6
Raw material	Caprolactam	Hexamethylene diamine and adipic acid
Polymer type	Polyamide	Polyamide
Manufacturing route	Ring-opening polymerisation	Condensation polymerisation
General character	Good toughness and dyeability	Good strength, heat resistance and dimensional stability

10. Common Student Mistakes

Students often remember only that Nylon 6,6 is made from two chemicals, but the more important understanding is that these two chemicals form amide linkages. These amide linkages make Nylon 6,6 a polyamide.

Another common mistake is to think that spinning alone gives full strength to the fibre. In reality, drawing is essential because it aligns the polymer chains and improves strength.

A third mistake is confusing Nylon 6 with Nylon 6,6. Nylon 6 is produced from one main raw material, while Nylon 6,6 is produced from two main raw materials.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. Why is it called Nylon 6,6?

It is called Nylon 6,6 because both of its main raw materials contain six carbon atoms. Hexamethylene diamine has six carbon atoms and adipic acid also has six carbon atoms.

2. What type of polymerisation is used for Nylon 6,6?

Nylon 6,6 is produced by condensation polymerisation. During this reaction, amide linkages are formed and water is eliminated.

3. Why is drawing necessary after spinning?

Drawing is necessary because freshly spun filaments have lower molecular orientation. When the filament is stretched, the polymer chains become more aligned along the fibre axis, improving strength and usefulness.

4. What is the function of the spinneret?

The spinneret converts molten polymer into fine continuous filaments. It contains small holes through which the molten nylon is extruded.

5. Why is Nylon 6,6 important in textiles?

Nylon 6,6 is important because it has good strength, elasticity, abrasion resistance and resilience. These properties make it useful for apparel, carpets and industrial textile products.

Summary

Nylon 6,6 is manufactured from hexamethylene diamine and adipic acid. These raw materials first form nylon salt, which is then polymerised to produce Nylon 6,6 polymer. The polymer is converted into chips or directly taken for spinning.

In melt spinning, the polymer is melted and extruded through a spinneret to form filaments. These filaments are cooled, drawn and wound. Drawing is a very important stage because it improves molecular orientation and gives the fibre its required strength.

Thus, the manufacturing process of Nylon 6,6 may be understood as a combination of chemistry and fibre formation: polymerisation creates the polymer, melt spinning creates the filament, and drawing develops the final textile properties.

Disclaimer

This article is intended for textile students, merchandisers and general readers. Industrial Nylon 6,6 manufacturing may vary depending on plant design, polymer grade, equipment configuration and end-use requirements. The explanation here simplifies the process for educational understanding.

Properties of Acetate Rayon

Properties of Acetate Rayon

55/20/3s means 55 denier yarn, 20 filament and 3 TPI S side.

Moisture content of sec. Cellulose acetate is 6.5% at 70 deg F and 65% RH.
( Moisture Content= Wt of water in a material /Total wt of material) ( Moisture Regain= wt of water in a material/ oven dry wt of material)
( RH= actual humidity/ humidity of air saturated in water).

Tenacity of Acetate rayon is 1.4 gpd at dry state and 0.9 gpd at wet state.

Elongation at break is 25% in dry state and 35% in wet state

Acetate Rayon is more sensitive to heat. It begins to weaken at 93 deg C. At 175 deg C it becomes sticky and melts at 260 deg C. Like nylon and polyester it is thermoplastic. Thus permanent crimp, pleats and creases can be imparted to the garment under carefully controlled conditions.

Acetate rayon is soluble in acetone, methyl ethyle ketone etc.

Some degeneration takes place when this fiber is exposed to light but not very serious.

It is stable to hot water.

It can also withstand treatment with soap or alkali solution having a pH of not more than 9.5 at temp upto 100 deg C. Therefore it can undergo normal scouring and dyeing operations without affecting the lustre.

It is unaffected by dilute solutions of weak acids but attacked by strong acids. Concentrated organic acids cause swelling

It is resistant to attack by bacteria and fungi. Its low moisture content contributes to resistance to mildew.

It is non toxic and non irritating to skin

Only a few striations ( 2-3) are present in the fibre as can be seen from the longitudinal view. The cross section of the fiber have individual lobes and are round and smooth. It is the smaller number of lobes or serrations of acetate fibres that distinguish the fibre from more numerous serrations of viscose rayon.

Manufacturing Process of Acetate Rayon

Acetate Rayon

We know that

Alcohol + Acid --> Ester

If the cellulose is treated with acetic acid under certain conditions the free hydroxyl groups of cellulose are converted into ester groups.

Manfacture of cellulose acetate

Unlike inthe case of viscose rayon and cuprammonium rayon, where cellulose is dissolved and regenerated, cellulose acetate is manufactured by converting cellulose into a chemical compound of cellulose ( or chem modified cellulose) which is then dissolved in a suitable solvent ( chloroform or acetone) and spun by evaporating the solvent. Thus while viscose and cuprammonium rayons are regenerated fibres, acetate rayon is regenerated modified fibre.

Raw Material

Cotton linters and wood pulp are the most common employed raw materials for the manufacture of acetate rayon

Acetylation Process



The pretreated purified cotton linters are fed into an acetylator ( closed vessel) containing a mixture of acetic anhydride, glacial acetic acid and a small amount of concentrated sulphuric acid. For every 100 kg of cotton linters, 300 kg of glacial acetic acid, 500 kg of acetic anhydride and 8-10 kg of concentrated su;phuric acid may be used. The acetylator consists of a metal tank having a circular door at the top. The door is sealed after adding the mixture of chemicals and cotton linters. A stirrer having many blades rotates in the acetylator to mix the ingredients thoroughly. The acetylation reaction is an exotherimic reation. Heat is removed by circulating cold water through a jacket fitted to the acetylator. The acetylation reation is completed in 7-8 hours at 25-30 deg c. Triacetate is formed at this stage and it is in the form of a suspension in the acetylation mixture called the acid dope.

Hydrolysis ( Partial Deacetylation)

The acid dope from the above process is stored in jars for ageing. Acetic acid, water and sulphuric acid are added and allowed to stand for 10-20 hours. During this period, called ripening period, partial conversion of acetate groups to hydroxy groups takes place. The mixture is then diluted with water and stirred continuously when white flakes of acetate rayon get precipated. The flakes are placed in a centrifuge and the excess water is forced out of the cage through perforations. The flakes are then dried.

Spinning Solution or Dope

Acetate rayon is manufactured by dry spinning. It is dissovled in a volatile solvent (Acetone) to form the spinning solution or dope. This solution is forced through a spinnerette into a chamber in which hot air is circulated. The solvent evaporates leaving filaments of acetate rayon.

The details are as follows. Dried acetate flakes are mixed with three times the weight of acetone in enclosed tanks which are provided with powerful stirrers. The acetate dissolves slowly in the solvent. It takes about 24 hours for the complete dissolution to give a thick clear liquid called dope. The solution is filtered and deareated.

Spinning Process



The dope is spun into acetate rayon filaments on the dry spinning process. The dope is fed from a spinning tank into spinning cabinets. The dope coming out of the spinnerette travels a distance of 2-5 meters vertically downwards to a feed roller, from where it is guided on to a bobbin at a much greater speed than the speed of spinning. This imparts twist to the filaments.

Properties of Cuprammonium Rayon

Properties of Cuprammonium Rayon

Cuprammonium rayon is a regenerated cellulose fibre known especially for its fine filament structure and soft, silk-like handle. Like viscose rayon, it is made from cellulose, but the method of manufacture gives it certain distinctive characteristics, particularly in fineness, appearance, swelling behaviour, and dye absorption.

The following points summarise the important properties of cuprammonium rayon. Some numerical values and older technical descriptions should be verified from standard textile fibre references before academic citation.

1. Extreme Fineness of Filaments

One of the most important characteristics of cuprammonium rayon is the extreme fineness of its filaments. Filaments as fine as about 1.33 denier have been reported as being regularly produced, whereas viscose rayon has often been described in older textile literature as having a usual denier of around 2.5 denier.

This increased fineness is generally associated with the stretching or drawing applied to the filaments during spinning. Finer filaments give the fibre a softer feel and a more delicate drape.

Needs source verification: The specific denier values of 1.33 for cuprammonium rayon and 2.5 for viscose rayon should be checked against a standard textile fibre textbook or manufacturer data.

2. Soft and Silk-like Handle

Because of its fineness, cuprammonium rayon produces a soft, smooth, and silk-like handle. This makes it suitable for lightweight fabrics where softness, fluid drape, and a refined appearance are desired.

In fabric form, this property can be especially useful for dress materials, linings, saree-like drapable fabrics, scarves, and other products where a soft touch is valued.

3. Similarity to Cotton, but with Greater Swelling

Cuprammonium rayon is a regenerated cellulose fibre and therefore has many properties similar to cotton. However, it differs from cotton in some important structural aspects.

The average degree of polymerisation, often written as DP, is lower than that of cotton. Also, a larger portion of the fibre structure is occupied by amorphous regions. Because of this, cuprammonium rayon swells more readily than cotton.

Technical Note:
In textile science, degree of polymerisation refers to the average length of cellulose polymer chains. A lower DP generally indicates shorter cellulose chains. Amorphous regions are less ordered parts of the fibre structure, and these regions are usually more accessible to water, dyes, and chemicals.

As a result of greater swelling and higher accessibility, chemical reactions may take place faster in rayon than in cotton. This is important in wet processing, dyeing, finishing, and chemical treatment.

4. Behaviour on Burning and Exposure to Sunlight

Like viscose rayon, cuprammonium rayon burns rapidly. Older textile sources state that it chars at around 180°C. It is also reported to be degraded and weakened by exposure to sunlight in the presence of oxygen and moisture.

On ignition, cuprammonium rayon may leave behind ash containing traces of copper, due to the copper-based solvent system used in its manufacture.

Needs source verification: The charring temperature of 180°C and the statement regarding copper-containing ash should be checked from authoritative textile testing or fibre chemistry references.

5. Tensile Strength

The average tensile strength of cuprammonium rayon has been reported as approximately 1.7–2.3 in the dry state and 0.9–2.5 in the wet state.

These values appear to come from older fibre-property references. The unit is not mentioned in the original note and should therefore be verified before use in formal academic writing.

Needs source verification: Confirm the tensile strength values and their units. In textile references, fibre tenacity may be expressed in g/denier, cN/tex, or other units.

6. Elongation at Break

Cuprammonium rayon has been reported to show an elongation at break of about 10–17% in the dry state.

This means that the fibre can stretch to some extent before breaking. In practical fabric behaviour, elongation influences comfort, drape, crease recovery, and handling during processing.

Needs source verification: The stated elongation range should be verified from standard fibre-property tables.

7. Moisture Regain

At 70°F and 65% relative humidity, the moisture content of cuprammonium rayon is reported to be about 11%, similar to viscose rayon.

This relatively high moisture regain contributes to comfort in wear, because regenerated cellulose fibres can absorb moisture better than many synthetic fibres such as polyester or nylon.

Needs source verification: The 11% moisture content figure should be checked against standard textile fibre regain tables.

8. Dye Absorption

Cuprammonium rayon has good dye absorption. Its absorption power for direct dyes has been reported to be greater than that of viscose rayon, resulting in deeper shades under comparable dyeing conditions.

This behaviour can be related to the fibre’s accessible cellulose structure and swelling tendency. In practical dyeing, this may affect shade depth, dye uptake, and process control.

Needs source verification: The comparison of direct dye absorption between cuprammonium rayon and viscose rayon should be checked from dyeing or fibre chemistry references.

9. Microscopic Appearance

Under microscopic examination, cuprammonium rayon filaments appear uniform in longitudinal view. Their surfaces generally show no prominent markings.

In cross-section, the filaments are usually round and smooth, though they may occasionally appear slightly oval.

Practical Note:
Microscopic appearance is useful in fibre identification. Cotton shows natural twists or convolutions, while viscose rayon often shows striations. Cuprammonium rayon is generally smoother and more uniform in appearance.

Summary Table: Key Properties of Cuprammonium Rayon

Property	Description	Practical Significance
Fineness	Very fine filaments; older sources mention about 1.33 denier	Soft handle, smooth surface, good drape
Handle	Soft and silk-like	Useful for lightweight, elegant fabrics
Structure	Lower DP than cotton; more amorphous regions	Greater swelling and chemical accessibility
Burning behaviour	Burns rapidly like viscose rayon	Important for fibre identification and safety understanding
Strength	Moderate tensile strength; reported values need unit verification	Affects processing and fabric durability
Elongation	About 10–17% dry elongation reported	Influences flexibility and fabric behaviour
Moisture content	About 11% at 70°F and 65% RH reported	Contributes to comfort and absorbency
Dye absorption	Good absorption of direct dyes; deeper shades reported than viscose rayon	Relevant for dyeing depth and shade control
Microscopic appearance	Smooth longitudinal view; round or slightly oval cross-section	Useful for fibre identification

Conclusion

Cuprammonium rayon is valued mainly for its fine filament structure, soft silk-like handle, good moisture absorption, and attractive dyeing behaviour. Although it shares many properties with cotton and viscose rayon because all are cellulose-based fibres, its greater fineness and smoother microscopic appearance give it a distinctive character.

For students and textile professionals, cuprammonium rayon is a useful example of how manufacturing method, fibre structure, and end-use performance are closely connected. However, some numerical values commonly found in older notes should be verified from reliable textile references before being used in academic or technical documentation.

Suggested References / Sources to Check

The following references may be useful:

1. Textile Fibres: Their Physical, Microscopical and Chemical Properties — J. Merritt Matthews
2. Textile Fibers, Dyes, Finishes, and Processes — Howard L. Needles
3. Physical Properties of Textile Fibres — W. E. Morton and J. W. S. Hearle
4. Manufactured Fibre Technology — V. B. Gupta and V. K. Kothari
5. Identification of Textile Materials — The Textile Institute
6. Textile Science — E. P. G. Gohl and L. D. Vilensky
7. Handbook of Textile Fibres: Man-Made Fibres — J. Gordon Cook
8. BIS, ASTM, or Textile Institute standards on fibre identification and moisture regain
9. Manufacturer technical data sheets for cupro / cuprammonium rayon
10. Academic papers or technical notes on regenerated cellulose fibres and cupro fibre properties

Manufacturing Process of Cuprammonium Rayon

Cuprammonium Rayon


Like Viscose Rayon, cuprammonium rayon is also a regenerated cellulose fibre. Cotton linters are used as the source of cellulose for this rayon.

Ammonical copper oxide solution is also known as cuprammonium hydroxide solution. Cuprammonium hydroxide solution is a solvent for cellulose. When a solution of cellulose in cuprammonium hydroxide is diluted with water or treated with dilute sulphuric acid, the cellulose is regenerated or reprecipitated. By using a spinnerette, filaments of this regenerated cellulose can be produced.

Manufacture of Cuprammonium Rayon

The source of cellulose for this rayon is cotton linters, the purification of cotton linters is carried out in two stages:

a. Mechanical Treatment
b. Chemical Treatment

Mechanical Treatment

The cotton linters are transported in bales in highly compressed state and the object of the mechanical treatment is to loosen them and to remove mechanically admixed and loosly bound impurities such as dust sand, seed residues etc.

Chemical Tratment

The mechanically opened and purified cotton linters are boiled under pressure for several hours with dilute sod ash ( Na2Co3) solution (2%) to which a little amount of caustic soda may be added. The natural fatty matter present in the cotton is converted into soluble substance by the action of soda ash and thus removed from cotton linters.

Dissolution of Cellulose

In this, a solution of hydrated copper sulphate in 300-400 liters of water is introduced in a vessel at ordinary temperature with stirring. Some sugar is also added followed by caustic soda solution to form copper hydroxide.

Ground linters suspended in water are added to the above mixture to form copper cellulose.

The copper cellulose is filtered to remove the liquid, well ground and dissolved in a solution of ammonia in water.

Spinning Solution

By adding certain compounds to the cuprammonium cellulose solution, the solution is made more suitable for spinning. These compounds include glycerine, glucose, tartaric acid, citric acid, oxalic acid, can sugar etc.

Stretch Spinning

In the spinning process, the cuprammonium cellulose solution is discharged through nozzles ( spinnerette) into a solution of sulphuric acid in the form of relatively thick threads which are subsequently pulled( stretched ) to very fine filaments.

Properties of Viscose Rayon

Properties of Viscose Rayon

Moisture Absorption

It absorbs more moisture than cotton. Moisture Content of Coton is 6% at 70 deg F and 65% RH, and for Viscose Rayon it is 13% under the same conditions.

Tensile Strength

The Tensile Strength of the fibre is less when the fibre is wet than when dry. It is 1.5-2.4 gpd in the dry state and 0.7-1.2 gpd in the wet state. For high tenacity variety the values are 3-4.6 gpd and 1.9 to 3.0 gpd.

Elasticity

The elasticity of Viscose Rayon is less than 2-3%. This is very important in handling viscose yarns during weaving, stentering etc when sudden tensions are applied.

Elongation at Break

Ordinary Viscose rayon has 15-30% elongation at break, whule high tenacity rayon has only 9-17% elongation at break.

Density

The density of Viscose rayon is 1.53 g/cc. Rayon filaments are available in three densities: 1.5, 3.0 and 4.5

Action of Heat and Light

At 300 deg F or more, VR loses its strength and begins to decompose at 350-400 deg F. Prolonged exposure to sunlight also weakens the fibre due to moisture and ultraviolet light of the sunlight.

Chemical Properties

Viscose rayon consists of cellulose of lower DP than cotton cellulose. Also amorphous region of Viscose rayon is present to a greater extent, therefore, Viscose rayon reacts faster than cotton with chemicals. Acids like H2SO4 HCL breaks the cellulose to hydrocellulose. Oxidising agents like Na(OCl)2, Bleaching powder, K2Cr2O7, KMnO4- form oxycellulose. Cold acid solutions for a short time do not attack viscose rayon.

Action of Solvents

Textile solvents can be used on Viscose rayon without any deteriorating effect. Viscose rayon dissolves in cuprammonium hydroxide solution.

Effect of Iron

Contact with iron in the form of ferrous hydroxide weakens viscose rayon yarns. Therefore staining, marking or touching of rayon to iron or iron surface should be avoided.

Action of Microorganisms

Microorganisms ( moulds, mildew, fungus, bacteria) affect the colour, strength, dyeing properties and lustre of rayon. Clean and dry viscose rayon is rarely attacked by moulds and mildew.

Longitudinal View

The longitudinal view of these fibres show many striations running parallel to the long axis of the fibre. The cross section of viscose has striated periphery, having many sharp indentations, and cross sectional contours vary from circular and oval to ribbon-like forms.

Manufacturing Process of Viscose Rayon

Viscose Rayon

It is a regenerated cellulosic fibre and cellulose is the raw material for producing this man made fibre.

The raw material is obtained from a special variety of wood called spruce.

Manufacturing Process

a. Purification of Cellulose:

The manufacture of viscose rayon starts with the purification of cellulose. Spruce trees are cut into timber. Their barks are removed and cut into pieces measuring 7/8" x 1/2" x 1/4". These pieces are treated with a solution of calcium bisulphite and cooked with steam under pressure for about 14 hours.
The cellulosic component of the wood is unaffected by this treatment, but the cementing material called lignin, which is present in the wood, is converted into its sulphonated compound which is soluble in water. This can be washed off, thereby purifying the remaining cellulose. This cellulose is treated with excess of water. After this it is treated with a bleaching agent (sod hypochlorite) and finally converted into paper boards or sheets. This is called wood pulp, which is normally purchased by the manufacturers of viscose rayon.

b. Conditioning of Wood Pulp:
The pulp sheets are cut by a guillotine to the required dimension and are kept in a special room. Air moves freely among the divisors by means of ventilatorys, the temperature is maintained at 30 deg celcius. In this way the desired moisture content can be had.

c. Steeping Process:
The conditioned wood pulp sheets are treated with caustic soda solution ( about 17.5%). It is called mercerising or steeping. The high DP cellulose (1000) is converted into soda cellulose. The sheets are allowed to soak (steep0 until they become dark brown in colour. This takes about 1-14 hours. The caustic soda solution is drained off and sheets are pressed to squeeze out excess caustic soda solution. 100 kg of sulphite pulp gives about 310 kg of soda cellulose.

4. Shredding or cutting process:
The wet, soft sheets of soda cellulose are passed through a shredding machine which cuts them into small bits. In 2-3 hours the sheets are broken into fine crumbs.

5. Ageing Process:
To obtain almost ideal solution of cellulose, the soda cellulose is stored in small galvanised drums for about 48 hours at 28 deg C. This process is called ageing process.The ageing process is essential. During This process, the DP od soda cellulose is decreased from 1000 to about 300 by oxygen present in the air, contained in the drum.

6. Churning Process or Xanthation:
After ageing, the crumbs of soda cellulose are transferred to rotating, air tight, hexagonal churners or mixers. Carbon disulphide ( 10% of the weight of the crumbs) is added to the mixer and churned together for 3 hours by rotating the mixers at a slow speed of 2 rev per minutes. Sodium cellulose xanthate is formed during this process and the colors of the product changes from white to reddish orange.

7. Mixing or dissolving Process:
The orange product i.e. sod.cell.xanthate is in the form of small balls. These fall into a mixer called dissover which is provided with a stirrer. A dilute solution of caustic soda is added, and the contents are stirred for 4-5 hours and at the same time, the dissovler is cooled. The sod.cell.xan. dissovles to give a clear brown thick liquor, similar to honey. This is called 'viscose' and it contains about 6.5% caustic soda and 7.5% cellulose.

8. Ripening Process:
This viscose solution requires to be ripened to give a solution having best spinning qualities. Ripening is carried by storing the viscose solution for 4-5 days at 10 to 18 deg. The viscosity of the solution first decreases and then rises to its original value. The ripened solutoin is filtered carefully and is now ready for spinning to produce viscose rayon filaments.

9. Spinning Process:

The viscose solution is forced through a spinnerette, having many fine holes ( 0.05-0.1mm) diameter. The spinnerette is submerged into a solution containing the following chemicals.
10% --> sulphuric acid, 18%- Sod sulphate, 1% - Zinc sulphate, 2% glucose, 69% water.

The spinning solution is kept at 40-45 deg celcius.

Sodium sulphate precipitates the dissoved sod. cell.xanthate. Sulphuric Acid converts xanthate into cellulose, carbon disulphide and sod. sulphate. the glucose is supposed to give softness and pliability to the filaments whereas zinc sulphate gives added strength.

The quality of viscose rayon filament formed depends upon:

1. The temperature of the spinning bath
2. The composition of the spinning bath.
3. The speed of coagulation
4. The period of immersion of the filament in the spinning bath.
5. The speed of spinning.
6. The stretch imparted to the filaments.

As a number of filaments emerge from the spinnerette, they are taken together to an eye at the surface of the spinning bath and then guided to two rollers from where they are wound on to a spindle.

Common Yarn Faults in Manmade Fibres

Common Yarn Faults in manmade fibres

1. Slubs:

Slub like thick faults seriously mar the appearance of fabrics made from manmade fibres. The following measures can be taken

A. In Blends with cotton

a. properly select the cotton component
b. ensure proper grinding of wirepoints at cards
c. regularly check the ringframe drafting system.

B. In 100% manmade fibres

a. Ensure adequate number of doublings
b. avoid too wide a roller setting and inadequate weighting on rollers.
c. Select correctly the fibres in regard to their compatibility in length.

2. Crackers

This defect is characterised by the cracking sound produced when the yarn is pulled. The sound is produced due to sudden rupture of fibres curled around the yarn.

- Crackers are caused mainly by the presence of very long fibres due to improper cutting of the two.

- They can also be caused due to high vairability in the elongation of the constituent fibres in the blend.

- Ensure wider roller setting in the back zone, adequate roller weighting and avoid too narrow a spacing between the aprons.

- It is helpful to have low roving twist and higher spinning tension through the use of heavier traveller.

3. Neps

This can also mar the appearance of a fabric

- In man made fibres longer and finer fibres tend to produce more neps.
- Other reasons of neps are
- Excessing beating of fibres in the blow room
- Loading of licker-in or cylinder at card
- Blunt wire points on various carding elements
- excessive lap weight

4. Fluffy Yarn

In general presence of short fibres and proneness to static accumulation tend to produce this defect.

The fault can be corrected by maintaining proper atmospheric conditions and reducing the fluff on roving.

5. Smoky Yarn

- The yarn containing synthetic fibres get smoky through long exposure of the running bobbin in a dirty atmosphere in the ring spinning system.

- Installation of smoke filters in H-plant can correct the problem

- Use of roving build can check this defect.