Buti and Buta Motifs in Jodhpur Textile Printing

1. Sada:  This motif is used by Bishnoi community of Jodhpur.

2. Oul : This motif is worn by Chaudhari Community.

3. Ankuri : This motif is worn by Kalbelia and Jat Community

4. Makhi : This Motif is used by Choudhary community.

5. Gulbuta : This motif is used by Jain and Choudhary community

6. Kapa: This motif is worn by widows of Rabari Community

7. Bhalka: This motif is ued by Gadiya Luhar community.

8. Jali : This motif is used by Gadiya Luhar community

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Traditional Striped Motifs in Jodhpur Textile Printing

Boriya

Boriya Motif- Used by Mali Kaum in Rajasthan

Ilaicha

Ilaicha Motif- Worn by Sirvi in Rajasthan

Jodhpuri Katar

Jodhpuri Katar- Worn by Rabari Kaum

Makoda

Makoda- Worn by Rabaris

Mehndi

Mehndi Motif- Worn by Sindhi Muslim- Ghagras

Methi

Methi Worn by Choudhari Community in Rajasthan

Nimboli

Nimoli Motif- Used by Choudhary Women in Jodhpur

Phooli

Phooli Worn by Rebari ( Raika) in Rajasthan

Rakhri

Rakhri - Worn by Rebaris in Rajasthan

Rata Katar

Rata Katar- Worn by Sirvis

Sada Chint

Sada Chhint- Worn by Vaishnav

Samundar

Samundar- Worn by Merat Kaum in Rajasthan

All these pictures are courtesy Mr. Chhipa Yasin- who has developed a bed sheet using thirty of these now-forgotten motifs.

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Motifs of Jodhpur Printing- Phetiya ( Fetia, Phetia)

Phetiya is one of the most popular motifs used in block printing in Jodhpur. There are various variations of Phetiya are available. Some of them are as given below:

1. Panihari Phetiya

In this motif, Indigo and Alizarin are prominent Colors. It is a traditional costume of Sirvi ( Chaudhary) Community in Rajasthan. The word Sirvi means share cropper (A sharecropper is a farmer who doesn't own the lands he farms). Sirvi people speak Marwari. The men wear cotton thread around their waist, called bell or dhaga, having eleven knots. They believe that this dhaga symbolizes their community deity Jagadhamba of Rajasthan.

2. Nanna Phetiya

It comprises of natural colors like Indigo, Alum, Haldi and Alizerin. Availability of good water enhances this kind of block printing. It is a favourite among the women in the Choudhari community who carry these prints in their traditional Ghaghras.

3. Genda Phetiya

The genda print is seen mostly in the traditional dresses of Rabari community. Some natural colors like alum or indigo are used in Dabu technique of printing.

4. Gunda Phetiya

The Gunda Phetiya kind of block prints are vividly seen in the traditional attires of the Mali Jat in Rajasthan. Simple yet unique prints with Shades of alizerin and indigo enhance the simplicity of the fabric.

5. Bavliya or Guddi Phetiya

The Bavliya kind of print is mostly seen in the traditional outfits of the women in the Choudhari ( Godwal)  community of Rajasthan. The prints are made with finely carved blocks using natural Colors.

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How Neel or Ultramarine Blue Whitens Fabrics

What is Neel? The Science of Ultramarine Blue in Washing White Clothes

Neel is a familiar household material used in the washing of white clothes. In many Indian homes, a small quantity of Neel is added during the final rinse so that white garments appear fresher and cleaner. Though it looks like a simple traditional practice, the science behind Neel is quite interesting.

The main blue substance used in traditional laundry blueing is generally Ultramarine Blue. It is not a dye, but a blue inorganic pigment. Chemically, ultramarine blue is based on a complex sodium aluminosilicate structure containing sulphur species. Its general composition may be represented approximately as:

\( \text{Na}_{8-10}\text{Al}_{6}\text{Si}_{6}\text{O}_{24}\text{S}_{2-4} \)

This formula is only approximate because ultramarine is not a simple single compound. It is better understood as a complex mineral-type pigment in which the colour-producing sulphur species are held inside a framework structure.

Why is it Called Ultramarine?

The word ultramarine comes from the idea of “beyond the sea.” Historically, the natural blue pigment was obtained from lapis lazuli, a semi-precious stone mined in Asia, especially Afghanistan, and transported to Europe through long-distance trade routes.

Because natural ultramarine was rare and expensive, it became one of the most valued pigments in art history. Later, synthetic ultramarine was developed, making this beautiful blue pigment much more affordable and widely available for industrial and domestic use.

Ultramarine Blue is a Cage Pigment

One of the most important research insights about ultramarine blue is that it has a sodalite-type cage structure. The framework is made of aluminium, silicon, oxygen, and sodium. Inside this framework, sulphur-based colour centres are trapped.

In simple words, ultramarine blue is like a tiny mineral cage:

\( \text{Aluminosilicate cage} + \text{Sulphur chromophores} = \text{Blue colour} \)

The aluminosilicate framework by itself is not responsible for the strong blue colour. The colour mainly comes from sulphur radical species such as:

\( S_3^- \quad \text{and} \quad S_2^- \)

These sulphur species are trapped inside the cage-like structure and act as chromophores, meaning they are responsible for the colour of the pigment. This is why ultramarine blue is considered one of the most fascinating inorganic pigments.

Simple explanation:
Ultramarine blue gets its colour not from an ordinary dye molecule, but from sulphur species trapped inside a mineral-like cage. This makes it different from most organic colouring materials used in textiles.

Why Do White Clothes Become Yellow or Grey?

White fabrics often lose their fresh appearance after repeated washing and use. They may become slightly yellow, grey, or dull. This can happen because of body oils, detergent residues, ageing of fibres, water hardness, dust, pollution, or repeated exposure to sunlight and washing conditions.

A white fabric appears white when it reflects most of the visible light falling on it. But when the fabric develops a yellowish tone, the reflected light is no longer visually balanced. The cloth may be clean, but it does not look fresh.

How Neel Makes Clothes Look Whiter

Neel works on the principle of colour correction. Blue and yellow are complementary in visual perception. When a very small amount of blue is added to a slightly yellowish white fabric, the yellow tone is visually neutralised. As a result, the fabric appears whiter to the eye.

\( \text{Yellowish white fabric} + \text{trace blue tone} = \text{visually whiter fabric} \)

This does not mean that Neel has chemically cleaned the fabric. It has not removed dirt or stains like a detergent or bleach. Instead, it has improved the perceived whiteness of the fabric by adjusting its colour balance.

Why Ultramarine Blue is Suitable for Laundry Blueing

Ultramarine blue is especially useful because it has a balanced blue tone suitable for correcting yellowish whites. Many blue pigments may have a greenish undertone, but ultramarine has a characteristic tone that helps neutralise yellow without making the fabric look harsh or unnatural when used in very small quantities.

The important point is that Neel must be used in trace quantity. Its purpose is not to colour the cloth blue. Its purpose is to correct the yellowish appearance of white fabric.

Neel is a Pigment, Not a Dye

A very important distinction is that ultramarine blue is a pigment, not a dye. A dye dissolves in water and has affinity for the fibre. A pigment does not dissolve in water. It remains suspended as fine particles.

Therefore, when Neel is added to water, it must be properly diluted and stirred. If the pigment particles are not evenly dispersed, they may settle or deposit unevenly, causing blue patches on the fabric.

During rinsing, some fine ultramarine particles get temporarily trapped on or near the surface of the fabric. These particles give the fabric a slight bluish correction. In the next wash, many of these particles are removed and new particles may deposit again if Neel is used. This makes the process partly self-correcting when used correctly.

The Role of Particle Size

Particle size is very important in the performance of ultramarine blue. In pigment science, finer particles generally give stronger tinting power and better dispersion. However, in laundry use, particles that are too fine may remain trapped in the fabric and create a gradual blue build-up.

If the particle size is extremely small, especially below about \(1 \, \mu m\), the particles may not wash out easily in the next washing cycle. This may slowly increase the bluish tone of the fabric. A particle size around \(2-3 \, \mu m\) is often considered more suitable for temporary deposition and removal during washing.

Practical point:
In Neel, chemistry gives the colour, but particle size decides how the pigment behaves on the fabric.

What Happens if Too Much Neel is Used?

If too much Neel is added, the fabric will no longer appear brilliantly white. Instead, it may develop a pale blue shade. This is a common problem when Neel is added directly to clothes or when it is not diluted properly.

To avoid this, Neel should always be diluted in water before the clothes are dipped. The water should be stirred well so that the pigment particles remain uniformly suspended. White clothes should then be dipped evenly and briefly.

If excess blueing occurs, repeated rinsing in clean water can reduce the blue tone. Traditionally, mild rinses using vinegar or lime water have also been used to help remove excess blue colour.

Whiteness and Brightness are Not the Same

Neel improves the whiteness appearance of fabric, but it does not truly increase brightness. This distinction is important.

Ultramarine blue works by reducing the yellowish appearance of fabric. In optical terms, it absorbs or masks part of the unwanted yellow component. Because of this subtractive action, the fabric may look whiter, but the total reflected light may not increase.

Brightness is improved by a different class of materials called optical brightening agents or fluorescent whitening agents. These materials absorb ultraviolet light and re-emit it as visible blue light. This makes the fabric appear brighter and more luminous.

Material	How it Works	Main Effect on Fabric
Neel / Ultramarine Blue	Adds a slight blue tone and neutralises yellowish appearance	Improves perceived whiteness
Optical Brightening Agent	Absorbs ultraviolet light and emits visible blue light	Improves brightness and luminous whiteness
Bleach	Chemically destroys coloured impurities and stains	Removes colour bodies and cleans stains

Stability of Ultramarine Blue

Ultramarine blue is generally suitable for alkaline washing conditions, which is useful because many soaps and detergents are alkaline. However, ordinary ultramarine blue is less stable in acidic conditions. Acids can damage the sulphur-containing colour centres and reduce the blue colour.

This is one reason why modern pigment research also studies acid-resistant forms of ultramarine blue. Improvements in synthesis, coating, and surface treatment can make the pigment more durable for different industrial applications.

Modern Research on Ultramarine Blue

Although Neel appears to be a simple household material, ultramarine blue continues to be studied in materials science. Researchers are interested in its structure, colour mechanism, particle morphology, acid resistance, and more sustainable methods of production.

Recent research has explored the preparation of ultramarine pigments from alternative mineral sources such as palygorskite. Such studies examine how raw material composition, sodium carbonate, sulphur ratio, firing conditions, and post-treatment influence the final colour and stability of the pigment.

This shows that ultramarine blue is not only a traditional laundry pigment, but also an important industrial inorganic pigment used in plastics, paints, rubber, paper, detergents, cosmetics, and conservation science.

Practical Guidelines for Using Neel

• Use only a very small quantity of Neel.
• Always dilute it in water before adding clothes.
• Stir the water well to keep the pigment evenly suspended.
• Do not pour concentrated Neel directly on fabric.
• Dip the white clothes evenly and briefly.
• Use Neel for white fabrics only, not coloured garments.
• If blue patches appear, rinse repeatedly in clean water.

Conclusion

Neel is a beautiful example of practical household science. Its main pigment, Ultramarine Blue, is a complex inorganic pigment with a sodalite-type aluminosilicate cage structure. The blue colour comes mainly from sulphur radical species such as \(S_3^-\) and \(S_2^-\), which are trapped inside this mineral framework.

In laundry use, Neel does not clean the fabric chemically. It improves the appearance of white clothes by neutralising their yellowish tone through colour correction. The effect depends on correct dilution, good dispersion, proper particle size, and careful use.

Therefore, Neel should not be seen merely as an old-fashioned washing additive. It is a scientifically interesting pigment whose structure, colour mechanism, and fabric behaviour connect household practice with textile science, pigment chemistry, and materials research.

Source note:
This article is based on general textile chemistry concepts and research literature on ultramarine blue pigments, including studies on sodalite cage structure, sulphur chromophores such as \(S_3^-\) and \(S_2^-\), pigment particle size, laundry blueing, and the historical development of natural and synthetic ultramarine.

References and Further Reading

1. Kowalak, S. et al. “Sulfur radicals embedded in various cages of ultramarine.” Journal of Solid State Chemistry, 2007.
   https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0022459607000217
2. Gobeltz, N. et al. “Occupancy of the Sodalite Cages in the Blue Ultramarine Pigments.” Inorganic Chemistry, American Chemical Society.
   https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/ic010822c
3. Škvarlová, A. et al. “Preparation and characterization of ultramarine blue pigments.” Microporous and Mesoporous Materials, 2019.
   https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1387181119302665
4. Farsang, S. et al. “\(S_2^-\) and \(S_3^-\) radicals and the \(S_4^{2-}\) polysulfide ion in lazurite, haüyne and synthetic ultramarine blue revealed by resonance Raman spectroscopy.” American Mineralogist, 2023.
   https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/msa/ammin/article/108/12/2234/629853/S2-and-S3-radicals-and-the-S42-polysulfide-ion-in

Textile Analysis for Forensic Testing

Textile as used in Forensic Evidence

Fibers represent one of the forensic evidences known as trace evidence.

The forensic examiners must handle a victim with care, to minimize fiber loss. Retrieving the victim's clothing as soon as possible is very necessary to prevent as much fiber loss as possible. Fibers are typically collected using adhesive tape.

The following details are particularly noted when analysing fibers. This helps to determine the source of the fibers.

1. Fiber Type: The presence of less common fibers at a  crime scene or on the clothing of victim or suspect increases its significance.

2. Fiber Colors: It greatly influences the significance of fiber comparison. Fading and discoloration further adds significance to a fiber association.

3. Number of Fibers: The greater the number of fibers on the body of a suspect or victim,  the more is the likely hood of a direct contact between individuals, however converse may not be true.

4. Fabric type: Loosley knit or woven fabric or new fabric shed more fibers.

Source 12


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A Note on Medical Textiles

Textiles act as an interface between man and treament. Depending upon the area of application, the medical textiles are categorises as Non-implantable, implantable and healthcare and hygiene products.

Non implantable material are external to the body, with or without skin contact. It includes absorbant pad, bandages and plasters among others. These material should have good padding characteristics and should be non sticking to the wound. Air and vapor permeability is requrired so that the material is comfortable to the patient. They should have high absorbancy and should be soft and pliable.

Implantable materials are used in place of defective body parts. It includes sutures and soft tissue implants. These materials should have compatibility with the natural body systems. They should be durable and resistant to alkali and acidic media. Of course, they should have functionality for the purpose for which they are applied.

Healthcare and hygine products are not directly used in medical treatment, rather they are used for good hygiene application and healthcare. It includes surgical clothing and surgical covers. They should have high bacterial and viral resistance. They should be hygienic and should have softness and breathablitity. They should have required strength.

Source of image: 1

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Some Facts about Linen

1. Flax yarns and fabrics increase about 20% in strength on wetting. Linen is therefore stronger than cotton when it comes to washing.

2. Linen can absorb upto 20% of its own weight of moisture while still feeling dry to the touch. That explains why Linen cloth are always fresh and cool.

3. The tensile strength of Linen is twice as high as that of cotton and 3 times as that of wool.

4. Linen reduces gamma radiation almost by half and protects humans against solar radiation.

5. Linen Cloth does not accumulate static electricity- even 10% of linen in a blend is enough to eliminate the static electricity effect.

6. Heat conductivity of Linen is 5 times as high as that of wool and 19 times as that of silk. In hot weather, those dressed in Linen clothes are found to show the skin temperature 3-4 deg below those wearing silk and cotton.

 Among all the linens, Irish Linen is always known to be the best. Linen is an important fiber for Ireland, so much so that stamps and coins are minted showing linen leaves. Source

You can view the production process of Linen from here

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Varanasi Saris- Process Notes

Notes on Varanasi Silk Saris

A Scenic View of the Ganges

Warp and Weft

Loom- Note the two Jacquards

A Close-up view of the Cloth Roll

Rangkaat Sari - Different Colored weft - Interlock technique

Card for Jacquard- Not Interchangeable for other machines

Temple- 6 nails- Unlike Chanderi come from Below

Dyeing of Body and Palla

A View of the Karkhaana- No Jaalas anymore

The warp used is 20/22 denier filament silk. 20/22 is called so because normally a silk fiber is of 2 denier. When 11 such filaments are taken then it becomes 22 denier. However, while reeling one filament may get broaken which means the denier is 20. Hence it is called 20/22 denier. Apart from this 14/18, spun, tussar , 16/18 and Pashmina are also used in the warp. Weft normally used is Katan. Normally for plain weave base 4 heald shafts are used in groups of 2. For Tanchui with Satin base more heald shafts are used. Jacquards are used for extra weft figuring. There can be upto three jacquards, one for weaving body motif, one for palla and one to set Konia etc. Min. warp size can be two saris. Jacquard can be 120 hooks or 160 hooks depending upon the design. Cards cut for one jacquard cannot be interchanged for the other.

Zari

Zari comes in 220 grams bundle and the fineness is denoted by Gajas. If 220 grams has 1200 yards, it is called 1200 gaja if this bundle has 1750 yards, it is called 1750 Gaja. and if it has 3700 yards, it is called 3700 gaja. 1750 and 3700 yard zaris are most commonly used. Zari comes in four quality plastic, Powder, Tested and Real Zari. Plastic zari is also called Kalabattu. Poweder zari has a thinner coating then tested zari and plastic has a synthetic base. In all the zaris except Real, the copper wire is wrapped over a cotton, viscose or synthetic and it is coated with gold or silver. Generally tested zari is also called half fine zari. Also in powder zari the inner core is twisted rayon over which artificial gold color powder is super imposed to obtain the lustrous appearance.However this lace get blacken after some use.3700 Gaja tested Zari has polyester as a base ( 30 denier) with copper covering and siliver or gold electroplating. The thicker zaris has cotton as the core. The Silver coated zari is called Rupa and Gold coated sari is called Sona. The best zari suppliers are AVJ from Surat or Locat supppliers like Uma. Zari comes in three shades; dark, light and medium. To subdue the effect of zari, it can be twised with Resham and used.  An amazing presentation on Zardozi work can be seen here.

Dyes

Dyes used are acid and metal complex for silk and Vat/reactive for cotton.  The colors of Varanasi Saris are fast and no staining is observed.

Preserving Varanasi Saris

The best way to preserve a Varanasi Sari is to keep it in the Mull cloth ( no starch, washed). Plastic is not recommened. It should be dry cleaned.

Finishing of Varanasi Saris

Generally after sari is finished it is then passed through cold calendar to give it a sheen and delivered.  

Other Notes

Maximum weight variation in two Varanasi saris willl be 20-50 grams per sari. Organza sari is called Kora. 

Other Readings:

123

An interesting reading is about the use of Condoms in making Varanasi Saris. 

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Technological Institute of Textile and Sciences, Bhiwani

It would be an injustice if I do not dedicate this blog to Technological Institute of Textiles(TIT), Bhiwani - the institute where I did my graduation from.

Image: http://www.titianslive.com

I joined the institute in 1990, barely knowing anything about textiles. At that time ( and I guess still now) the institute reverberated with anything related to textiles. I still remember the first lecture we attended of Revered Mr. Dhamija about Textile Raw Material. He seemed to be knowing everything about textiles ( which we found out later he actually did). I remember attending the lectures of Introduction to Textile Processes by Mr. Bhatnagar and Mechanism of Weaving by Mr.Arya. While we struggled our way to know about textiles, we got 'helped' a lot by our seniors who taught us short cuts to pass a particular course- which sometimes worked also. Textile Testing was taken care of by Mr. Punj and yes, it was Mr. Manuja who tried to run us throuh Engineering of Textile Structure. We were particularly influenced by Mr.R.K. Singh ( aka 'Raka') whose penchant for making graphs while teaching Synthetic fibers was particularly noted ( I remembered whenever he uttered "Rheology" and "Miscelles" while lecturing, I got so frustrated that I could not take any further notes ). Then came Mr.Tyagi and Mr.Sharma who tried to take us through to the subjects of Spinning and weaving respectively. Mr.KN Chatterjee made the subject of Fabric Structure very easy for us to learn. The best part about this institute is the mill attached to it which makes the whole process of learning very fast. 

TIT has a very good alumni following, with its ex students spread all across the globe. It has this organisation called TITOBA ( TIT Old Boys Association) which after girls started coming to the institute has become TITOSA (TIT old Students Association). TITOBA is a rather loose organisation with chapters all across the cities and regions of the world. Some attempts have been made to make to online. One of them is TITOBA on the NET by Mr. Dudeja, which has been a great effort. 

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Important Factors in Judging Cotton Yarn Industries in India

Important Factors in Judging Cotton Yarn Industries in India

1. Cost Management

Raw material cost forms about 50-55% of sales, in a cotton spinning company. The ratio of indigeneous to imported cotton affects the cost, as imported cotton depends upon international cycles.

Power cost  forms a fair component of cost (about 10% of sales) and the power expenditure becomes very critical. Players using captive generation have an assured uninterrupted supply of power.

Efficient cotton procurement strategies like contract farming, proficiency in estimating the future trends in the cotton market, proximity to the cotton cultivation areas and optimal quantity of cotton procurement would help players in minimizing costs and achieving profitability.

2. Inventory management

Cotton is a seasonal crop and is harvested from October to February every year. Inventory management thus plays an important role as companies procuring optimum quantities of crop and stocking raw material

requirement for a considerable time can ensure availability of good quality raw materials at reasonable prices.

3. Economies of scale

As the industry is characterized by low margins, profitability depends on volume of sales and companies having high capacities can register satisfactory growth. High capacities can   also help players in bagging huge 

orders. Further, companies having the capacity to manufacture on multiple lines can take the advantage of simultaneous production of different counts.

4. Labour relations

Labour cost constitutes about 6% of sales. Given the labour intensive nature of the industry, the companies having cordial labour relations are better placed in terms of labour productivity and smooth operations.

5. Expansions / Modernization

Opening up of global markets in the post quota regime, requires companies to undertake expansions and modernisations at the appropriate time so as to gain advantage of the growing markets and the demand-supply gap. Ability of spinning units to replace obsolete machines with modern state-of-the-art machines will enable companies to cater to the export marketsand offer better quality products. Further, players foraying into downstream expansions can benefit from integrated operation.

6. Diversification

Product diversification

 Players having finer count yarn in their product mix, cater to the elite market segment where demand is relatively price inelastic and margins are high. Companies having capacity to produce double yarn have better product flexibility. Further, companies producing blended yarn rather than only cotton yarn, can efficiently tackle the cyclicality in the cotton yarn demand. Also,companies focusing on value added products can further improve their profitability.

Geographical diversification

A player catering to both domestic as well as export markets can diversify the risk of sluggishness in a particular market. Export oriented companies catering to various countrieshave lower country specific risk. However, a large composition of exports calls for foreignexchange management policies as fluctuations in the foreign exchange market can adversely affect such players.

View the Complete Article Here

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Description, Designation and Annotation of Textile Yarn

There is frequently a need to describe the textile yarn concisely in the language which a laymen can understand. Also there is a need to write concisely the description of the textile yarn. ASTM has an elaborate system to describe spun, filament and a yarn made from a combination of these i.e. ply and cable yarn. 

In yarns such as ply or cable yarn which are made from components, it is essential to describe the components and the resultant from those components. Thus in describing such yarns, there have to be two groups; one of them describes the components and the other describes the resultant yarn. Accordingly there are two ways to write a yarn description. 

First method is called single to fold or ply notation. In this system, the single component of yarn is described first and only then the resultant yarn is descibed. This system is used in indirect numbering system. 

Second method is called fold or ply to single notation. In this system, the whole structure is described first and then the components are described. This is frequently used by yarn buyers. 

The full treatment of the topic is given here. Some general guidelines and examples are given in this article.

The notation 

24 Ne Z 15tpi (Cotton, 1 1/6 inch, SLM, 4.3 Micronaire Reading)/5 S 9 tpi/3 Z 5tpi; R 1.4 cc

represents a yarn made from 24 Count twisted in z direction with 15 twists per inch which is then again twisted 5 fold in s directions with 9 tpi and three such yarns are again twisted in Z direction with 5 tip which give a resultant cotton count of 1.4. 

The filament single yarn is described as

11 tex f40 s 2.5tpi( nylon 2.5 dtex)

For yarns where linear density gets increased on bulking or texturising, we describe it by symbol B.

70 den f34 t0(Nylon 2.97den); B 80 den

B 80 indicate that the denier of yarn is increased from 70 to 80 after bulking. 

Multiple wound yarns are described as:

25 tex Z 15 tpi ( Cotton ) x 2 t0

Here t0 indicate zero twist and describes that 2 yarns of 25 tex cotton with 15 tpi in z direction are wound together.

We can also describe a yarn using x.

You can read more here.

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What is Cold Peel and Hot Peel in Heat Transfer Printing

Difference between Cold Peel and Hot Peel in Heat Transfer Printing

Heat Transfer printing is an indirect printing method where, rather than printing inks directly on to a garment, inks are printed on to paper (called transfer paper), dried, then ‘transferred’ under a heat press on to the garment. Transfers are produced basically in two ways: these are Cold Peel (cold-split) transfers, and Hot-Peel (hot-split) transfers. Cold Peel method is where the transfer paper is allowed to cool down completely after application and before removing. This gives a semi-glossy, rubbery feel to the print. Hot peel method is where the transfer paper is peeled off the hot transfer immediately after the transfer is applied. When the paper is peeled hot, a portion of ink remain on paper and the rest on the fabric. Hot peel transfers feels just like screen prints. 

There is an excellent article about how to do the transfer printing here. To know in general about heat transfer printing one can go here .

Excalibur Product Manual is a trasurehouse of information about screens and heat transfer printing

An amazing introduction to Screen printing is done in comic style here

Very handy Hints and Tricks can be found here

By the way, metallic colors are not suitable for heat transfers.

Chanderi Fabric - Process and Specifications

Warp is always 20/22 denier ungummed, silk called Japani. Normally is is natural in color but it is also dyed by partially degumming the fiber. This silk is obtained chiefly from Varanasi. The main source of this silk is China.  In weft different types of fibers of different thickness can be used. Thus Mercerised cotton ( which is always twisted 2/120s or 2/100s) count is used. Generally, in weft 2/120s count is used for heavy saris, 2/100s for dress material with Buti and 2/80s for fabrics. If 2/70s is used it is generally a blend. The Kanni is always in cotton. This can be used as a way to identify if chanderi contains any synthetic. If kanni is not cotton, there are chances that the weft used is synthetic as using cotton in kanni will cut it.

Similary Katan ( which is two ply twisted 2 x16/18 denier silk) can be used. Sometimes they degum the Katan and make it look very soft. This is called Puna Resham. Some times single folded, two folded or three folded 100s cotton yarn is used. Zari is Half Fine Thread obtained from Surat, and is used in warp or weft for border, ornamentation in the body or at palla. Normally six zari colors are employed: Silver, Vine, Copper, Gold, Black and Green. Zari comes in bundle of four gittis ( cops ) of 240 grams each.

Production Details

Chanderi is a Silk cotton fabric woven on handloom.   The production is 3-4 meters per day for plain weave, it can be upto 1 meters per day where butis are required. The length of the weavers beam is from 60 m to 100 m (Image- Weaver’s Beam). When changing the beam, simple knotting is done with the threads of the previous beams. The EPI is 100 per inch ( 50 dents) the PPI is 66 picks per inch.

However length of fabric on roll is kept at 12m to 13 m. The Border is inserted using dobby or Jacquard.  (Image: View of Jacquard- Notice the two Jacquard, one is for Palla and the other for Body, the image on the middle is Dobby Mechanism, image on the extreme right shows the Lingos for Jacquard Mechanism)

The image below represents the fabric woven on two jacquards ( Image above at the left):

Similarly Palla can be woven. The dobby is of 24, 60 or 64 levers. Reed used can be of 2500 dents or 2600 dents. Normally two ends per dent are used, however to give stripe effect to the fabric , 4 ends per dents are used after every 8-9 ends- which are dented in the regular fashion.  Reed width is of 50 inches which gives a 46 inches wide cloth. Reed used is 100s which is number of dents per 2 inch. Thus for a 50 inch read, a maximum of 2500 dents are there which accommodate the warp. Generally in a 12.80 m warp, 12 m of fabric can be obtained.  Design is counted by the number of Tillis used to produce it. Tillis are small yarn holders used to hold the ornamentation yarn. ( Image- left: Tillis, Video- How design is inserted, Image at right showing warp sheets for two looms).

Ends for Tillis are lifted separately by a mechanism called as Nakka. Image ( Nakka). According to the design after every one or two normal picks the prescribed ends are lifted and held by means of peg and then the tillis are taken under those threads.

  Generally in one inch 33 tillis are used.  Thus if a graph is of 330 picks, it will take 10 inch of space on fabric. ( Image – Graph and its Replica on Chanderi Fabric)

One inch has got 100 ends and 50 dents. The tillis can be inserted after every one pick of normal yarn or after two picks of normal yarn. After warping the rope form of silk yarn is prepared called as Gundi. It contains 5300 ends. If 500 ends are used for making border, The rest 4700 are divided equally among 2350 dents. The warp beam is ordered like (2300=78)/931, which means warp meant for 2300 dents of 78 yards of 931 grams. The yarns in the warp sheet are prevented from entanglements with the help of lease threads which are inserted in the warp sheet after regular intervals ( Image- Lease Threads).

The warp beam is prevented from sloughing off by means of nylon ropes tightly twisted ( Image- Rope to hold the warp beam)

 When weaving with Single yarn is weft, water is used whereas when folded yarn is weft is used it is used as is. A typical dotted effect called Kirkita is produced using a flat wooden strip called Chapetan or rod. It is inserted in the warp end after every 6 ends depending upon the design. Then wherever the dotted zari effect is required to be produced, it is made to stand and the pick is inserted. In chanderi they have started using vat down. However black is still Sulphur black. As told earlier, the acid dyes are used in the silks. The yarn is first wetted using 30-40 C. Then it is dyed at 60 deg Celcius. The color Is matched and then acidic acid is added in requisite amounts. Then it is heated for 15-20 minutes and dried. Chanderi can be hand washed but because of Zari, it has to be dry cleaned.  In a loom called Tara loom(Please see here), the amount of beat up is controlled using cam in the loom.  In most of the looms take up mechanism is employed to avoid banding and even picks per inch (Image: Take up mechanism in left and Tara Loom on the right).

Warp is obtained in bales of 60 kg containing 12 bundles of about 5 kg. Weft is obtained in 2 kg bundles. Warp is always obtained which is dyed according to the requirements. Now in more and more looms Katan is used in weft instead of cotton. The cotton weft , when bought in dyed from Mills in Mumbai or Coimbatoor is mostly obtained already Reactive dyed from the source, which are semi fast colors. However vat dyes are increasingly being done to get the best colorfastness. ( Image on the left: Vat Dyes Stored by BVSC in Chanderi- It also shows the dyeing rate). Cabinet dyeing is also practiced at some places ( Images: Inside of a Cabinet dyeing machine at Handloom Institute, Chanderi).

Most of the cotton is bought through NHDC rather than private suppliers.  Zari is obtained in 1kg bundles with 4 gittis or cops in it each of about 240 gram. The zari that glitters more is inferior in quality.

To hold the fabric while looming, instead of temples a narrow strip with three pointed nails at both its end is used. Once the fabric is woven  to some length, the strip is then shifted forward suitably. 

Motifs and Colors used
An excellent treatment on the motifs and colors used in Chanderi fabrics can be found here.

The dyeing process of Silk in Chanderi Fabric according to MSME is as follows:


The process of Dyeing silk in chanderi fabric as per MSME website is as follows:


1. Water is heated at 40 degrees.
2. A hank of yarn is soaked for about 4-5 minutes.
3. The hank of 20/22 deniers is for 12 saris and is not degummed because degumming would take away
the basic crispness of the Chanderi fabric. This however reduces the degree of colour penetration.
4. The dye is prepared in a separate utensil.
5. Amount of dye to be used (say 50 gms in this case) is measured by hand.
6. The dyes in use vary from good quality dyes to the local ones.
7. The hank is soaked in the dye for 3-4 minutes.
8. Ascetic acid is added to the container containing the dye and the hank is kept in this solution for
almost 20 minutes.
9. The hank is then delicately squeezed with the help of wooden rods and dried.
10. The dyeing process takes about 45 minutes.
11. The normal charges are Rs. 4o/- per hank of12 saris.
12. This process enables colors, which are fast to 40 degrees.



Now you can watch this amazing video on Chanderi:

Bamboo Fiber- I

Bamboo is a regenerated cellulosic fiber. There are three types of bamboo fibers:

1. Pure Bamboo

2. Bamboo Charcoal

3. Bamboo Viscose

1. Pure Bamboo

Pure bamboo is produced by physical and mechanical process like linen and hemp. It has high strength and is environment friendly. However it suffers from poor spinnability properties and high cost.

2. Bamboo Charcoal- An application of Nano Technology

In making this fiber, the bamboo is dried and heated at 800 deg. C until it becomes bamboo charcoal. Then the charcoal is sent for further processing to turn it to nano particles. These ultra fine bamboo particles are then embedded into viscose or polyester fiber. The fiber is then drawn into yarn and processed as usual.

Generally nano-bamboo charcoal powder is added during the process of spinning solution.Thus polyester, nylon and viscose fibers can be manufactured embedded with bamboo charcoal fiber.

This fiber has strong adsorption capacity.  It can adsorb bad odor and chemicals. It shows an excellent anti-pilling tendency and the material washes well. It has strong anti-microbial properties. In an actual test of a pair of socks, after wearing without washing for a week, the socks not only have no odor, they were also dry. The disadvantage with this fiber is that it is only available in grey and black colors.

Source 1 2 3 4

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