Paako Embroidery

Paako means solid. It is a tight square chain and double buttonhole stitch embroidery, often with black slanted satin stitch outlining. 

Source of Image is Niya's World. Source of Images of Stitches is Needlecrafter

Kharek Embroidery

 Kharek embroidery is first outlined in black double running stitch, and then filled in with satin stitch, the end result is of cluster of bar like shapes.

Soof Embroidery

 

Soof (lit. “triangle”) is a technique counted out from the back of the fabric. Geometrical, whimsical variations of traditional motifs, including stylized flowers and figures, convey wishes of fertility and prosperity for the newlyweds. The designs are created with surface-satin stitches of varying lengths that allow most of the valuable silk to be visible on the front. 

 

Source: http://www.worcesterart.org/Exhibitions/indus.pdf

 

Malkha Fabric - A product of Microspinning

Sometimes back I have written an article on microspinning. I have also mentioned how at Chirala in Andhra Pradesh, a fabric by the name of Malkha Cotton is being produced from microspinning. 

I am glad that the Malkha fabric has become one of the choices of the designers and caught the attention of the media so-much-so that an article in Mint is devoted to this fabric. The source of the image is website of Malkha. 

The technology of spinning is hailed as Decentralised Cotton Yarn making-essentially using the same technology from Vortex as that of microspinning.

Now that you've finished reading this post, what are you going do? You should go join the Forum.

Tabby Silk and Mulberry Silk

Be careful about knowing the difference between Tabby Silk and Mulberry Silk.

Telephone Threads

Telephone threads are embroidery yarn- 100% Rayon Filament or Trilobal Polyester Yarn. The count is 100 D /2 ply to 180D/2 ply. Generally 100D/2ply or 120D/2 ply is used for single hand powered embroidery machines.

Fabric Used in the Pockets of Shorts, Capris or Trousers

The fabric used in the pockets of shorts, capris or trousers is sheeting ( 30s)

Texturing of Polyester

Texturising is a process to develop the warmth properties of synthetic by increasing the bulkiness of yarn. A basic discussion on texturing can be viewed here.

To know more about the business of a texturising unit, one can view the draft prospectus of a company which was filed to the Security and Exchange Board of India here.

Specifications of a draw texturing machines can be viewed here.

Now that you've finished reading this post, what are you going do? You should go join the Forum.

Spirality and Skew in Single Jersey- Causes and Remedies

This question is posted in a discussion by one of the readers:

I need a solution to control the skew and spirality of single jersey 160g with 30/s. Please provide me with some solution 

Spirality is a dimensional distortion in circular knitted fabric. Spirality is bad as it leads to displacement of seams and mismatched patterns. It can also leads to sewing difficulties. The major cause of spirality is the twist in roving and yarn. To minimize spirality, Z-twist yarns should be knotted on clockwise rotating machine and S-twist yarns on counter clockwise rotating machines. Tighter Fabics exhibit less spirality compared to looser fabrics which means that finer gauge machines will reduce spirality.

It can also be reduced by setting the twist either by autoclave treatment, yarn dyeing or using balanced plied yarns. 

For more information SITRA has a nice Technical brief here

Now that you've finished reading this post, what are you going do? You should go join the Forum.

Kasuti Embroidery

Kasuti Embroidery

It is a traditional embroidery of the state of Karnataka and is done by counting the threads of the warp and weft with the designs traced or implanted as outlines. 

There are essentially four types of kasuti embroidery. They are Neyge Kasuti, Murgi Kasuti, Menthya Kasuti and Gavanthi Kasuti. Gavanti and Murgi comprise a straight and zig zag stitch. The stitch is identical on both sides of the cloth where as Menthe and Negi Stitch are dissimilar on either side of the fabric. The Difference between Menthe and Negi Stitch is that while the Menthe stitch resembles a cross-stitch, the Negi stitch provides a woven style. These stitches are dissimilar on either side of the fabric.

The Basis of Gavanti and Murgi Stitich is Hoblein Stitich. To understand the concept of Hoblein stitch, you can visit this site.

Excellent Material on Kasuti Embroidery is available in this document. 

An equally amazing tutorial on Kasuti Embroidery is available in this blog and in this blog. Another tutorial is available here in the same blog.

Now that you've finished reading this post, what are you going do? You should go join the Forum.

Report on Human Resource Requirement in Textile Sector in India

This report from NSDC present a detailed overview of the human resources and skill gap requirement in Textile sector of India. Broadly it covers the following topics.

1. Environment Scanning and Competitiveness of Textile sector

1.1. Industry Size and Growth

1.2. Value chain of the Textile sector

1.3 Fibre/Filaments

1.4. Market Structure

1.5. Policy/Regulatory environment

1.6. Demand Drivers

1.7. Key Success Factors and Risk Factors

1.8. Drivers of competitiveness

2. Human Resource and Skill Requirements in the Textile Industry

2.1. Current employment pattern

2.2. Profile of human resource employed in the T&C industry

2.3. Skill requirements and skill gaps in Spinning

2.4. Skill requirements and skill gaps in Fabric Manufacturing

2.5. Skill requirements and skill gaps in Fabric processing

2.6. Skill requirements and skill gaps in Garmenting

2.7. Current Training/Education Infrastructure

2.8. Emerging trends in skill requirements

2.9. Projected Human Resource Requirements in the Textile & Clothing Sector 

Now that you've finished reading this post, what are you going do? You should go join the Forum.

How to Identify Gadwal Saris

Gadwal Saris are traditional Indian Saris from Andhra Pradesh. The striking feature of this sari is that, while the body is made from cotton, the borders and the pallu(the falling edge of the saree) are made from silk. There is complicated joinery involved and this gives the silk/cotton mix sari its charm. 


Most Gadwal Saris are woven with interlocked - weft borders of contrasting colours. Attaching the silk border and pallav to the cotton body is called doing the 'kechchu'. This is most difficult to do and is also what sets the Gadwal sari apart from other saris. The body of the sari is woven from unbleached cotton yarn and contains patterns made using colored cotton or silk thread. The embroidery is done using threads coated with gold or copper. Traditional motifs are used in the sari. 


These saris have different types of borders - Small border, medium border, heavy border (weight of the sari doesn’t vary). Also, Kutu border, Turning border, One side border are some other terms in use.

A Gadwal Sari is of 80 counts cotton for warp and weft in the body, and 20/22 D filature silk is used in the border and pallou .The blouse is also woven on the other side of the sari which is generally 32” in length.

How to Recognise a Gadwal Sari

KUTTU (a joining) at the border for any GADWAL sari, is one feature that helps recognize it and also any GADWAL sari whether Cotton or Silk, always has a Silk border.

You can find images of Gadwal Saris HERE.

Now that you've finished reading this post, what are you going do? You should go join the Forum.

Textile Company Profile: Sangam India Limited

1. Sangam India Limited, Largest Single location dyed yarn producer in the country.

2. It controls a market share of 25% in the polyester-viscose segment.

3. Largest manufacturers of polyester dyed yarn in the country.

4. Polyester prices has risen by around 25% in the last 12 months. 

5. In viscose, prices have increased by around 30% in the past one year.

6. While the overall textile market is growing by 5-6% in the past five to six years, the same in PV has been around 8-9%. 

7. The four major players in the country- Sangam, Rajasthan Spinning, Sutlej Textiles and Banswara Syntex- control close to 85% of the PV market.

8. About 90% of the revenue in yarn business comes from PV while the balance comes from Denim and Cotton yarn. 

9. About 70% of the company's total turn over comes from yarn business, the balance comes from fabrics.

10. 20% of the fabrics topline comes from PV Fabrics , about 6-7% from denim

11. Total Fabric Cap is 30 mn meters. PV accounts for 20 mm.

12. USP of Sangam- As per their CFO "Our strength lies in our location - Bhilwara. Around 50% of our capacity is sold in the vicinity of 5 kms. So, our sales cost comes down as does our costs on freight and insurance. We can also control our debtors in a much better manner as our inventory is pretty low. We maintain finished goods inventory of only 3-4 days while our raw material inventory is for one month. Therefore, our working capital is only around Rs1.8bn out of the topline of Rs8.5bn. Normally, working capital of a textile company is 30-40% of the topline. Our inventory cycle and debtor cycle are the lowest in the industry. We control the pricing power in polyester viscose yarn, as our market share in 2/15 and 2/18 count yarn is close to 65%. That is why our operating margin is the highest in the industry. There is a gap of 3-7% in our operating margin and that of the rivals"

13. Global PV Market: The global PV market is mainly controlled by India, Turkey and Brazil. Around 70% of the world’s PV market is controlled by India while the balance is accounted by Turkey and Brazil. Globally, the share of PV in textiles is less than 1%. In India, it is less than 7-8%. It is a very small and niche segment.

14.  Right now their capacity utilization is around 85-86% which is much less than targeted 92-93%.

Now that you've finished reading this post, what are you going do? You should go join the Forum.

Rising Prices of Denim in India

Denim Prices

1. Denim Makers have raised prices by 10-15% since beg of April

2. Most of them use cotton of fiber length of 12mm to 24 mm.

3. Raw material accounts for 50% of their input cost.

4. The price of SSC Kalyan V-797 have surged by nearly 25% to a level of 21000 per Candy from Rs. 17000 per candy.

5. Denim Prices have increased to 93-95 per meter from 84-86 Rs. per meter depending upon the quality. Also the prices have increased from 90-100 Rs. per meter to 110-115 Rs. per meter.

6. Margin is higher for those denim fabric manufacturers who buy cotton yarn instead of producing themselves.

Read the Full Article Here



Now that you've finished reading this post, what are you going do? You should go join the Forum.

Making Fancy Denim- Amsler Slub, Multicount and Multitwist Yarn

Making Fancy Denim: Amsler Slub, Multi-count and Multi-twist Yarns

Denim is no longer only a plain indigo fabric with a twill weave. Over the years, denim has become a surface of expression. Different yarn effects, dyeing methods, washing techniques and finishing treatments are used to create denim that looks aged, rugged, irregular, vintage, fashionable or handcrafted.

One important route for creating such effects is the use of fancy yarns. Among these, Amsler slub yarn, multi-count yarn and multi-twist yarn are closely associated with cross-hatch and fancy denim effects. In denim practice, the word “Amsler” is often used almost as a shorthand for a controlled slub or fancy-yarn effect, even though the actual fabric appearance depends on yarn design, dyeing, weaving and washing together.

Table of Contents

1. What Is Fancy Denim?
2. What Is Amsler Slub Yarn?
3. Why Slub Yarn Is Difficult to Produce
4. Principle of Amsler Slub Formation
5. Important Slub Parameters
6. Slub Yarn and Cross-Hatch Denim
7. What Is Multi-count Yarn?
8. What Is Multi-twist Yarn?
9. Comparison: Slub, Multi-count and Multi-twist
10. Practical Points for Merchandisers and Buyers
11. Common Mistakes in Understanding Amsler Denim
12. Final Understanding

What Is Fancy Denim?

Fancy denim is denim in which the yarn itself contributes to the visual character of the fabric. In regular denim, the yarn count, yarn twist and yarn thickness are relatively uniform. The fabric surface therefore appears more even, except for the effect created by weave, indigo dyeing and washing.

In fancy denim, deliberate irregularity is introduced into the yarn. This irregularity may appear as thick and thin places, changes in count, changes in twist, or combinations of these effects. When such yarns are woven and later washed, the denim surface shows streaks, cross-hatch marks, uneven dye absorption and a more natural-looking texture.

This is why slub yarns became so important in fashion denim. They help create a fabric that does not look mechanically perfect. Instead, the fabric appears more alive, more casual and more vintage.

Visual 1: Fancy denim effect map showing how slub yarn, multi-count yarn and multi-twist yarn influence denim appearance.

What Is Amsler Slub Yarn?

A slub yarn is a yarn in which thicker portions are intentionally introduced at intervals. These thick places are called slubs. The slubs may be short or long, frequent or widely spaced, mild or prominent, depending on the desired fabric effect.

Amsler slub yarn can be produced on both ring spinning and open-end spinning systems. In denim, Amsler slub effects are commonly produced on open-end spinning because the attachment allows slub and multi-twist effects at a comparatively lower cost than true ring-spun fancy yarn.

The principle is simple but technically important: the spinning system is controlled so that more fibre is fed for a short period of time. This creates a thicker place in the yarn. The key is not merely to make a thick place, but to make it in a controlled way so that the yarn does not become too weak or too unpredictable during weaving.

Why Slub Yarn Is Difficult to Produce

Producing slub yarn is not just a matter of creating thick and thin places. If the slub is not properly controlled, it can create weak places in the yarn. One major problem is that a thick place may be followed by a thin place, instead of returning smoothly to the normal yarn count. This thin region becomes a vulnerable zone and may lead to yarn breakage during winding, warping, sizing or weaving.

Another issue is twist distribution. In a slub yarn, the thick and thin sections do not receive twist in the same way. The twist in different portions of the yarn is related to the linear density of that portion. In simple terms, when the yarn becomes thicker, the twist per unit mass and the compactness of that region may change.

A simplified way to understand this is:

\[ \text{Yarn linear density} \uparrow \Rightarrow \text{local yarn thickness} \uparrow \]

When the linear density changes suddenly, twist distribution and fibre binding also change. Therefore, slub design must be controlled carefully. A good slub yarn should create visible fabric character without making the yarn too weak, too irregular for processing, or too difficult to weave.

Principle of Amsler Slub Formation

The Amsler effect is created through controlled variation in fibre feed or drafting. In a normal yarn, the fibre feed and machine speed remain stable. In Amsler slub yarn, a microprocessor-controlled servo motor creates a programmed overfeed for a short period. This produces a thicker section in the yarn according to a pre-designed pattern.

In ring spinning, the servo drive system may be connected to the drafting rollers through a special gearbox. During normal yarn formation, the machine runs at the regular setting. When a slub is required, the servo motor changes the drafting conditions and introduces extra material into the yarn. The purpose is to create the slub without disturbing the normal yarn formation too severely.

In open-end spinning, the broad principle is similar: a controlled excess feed of fibre is introduced for a specific duration. This creates the slub effect. Since open-end spinning is already widely used for denim yarns, attaching a slub device to open-end spinning becomes a practical and economical route for fancy denim.

Visual 2: Amsler slub formation diagram showing normal yarn, programmed overfeed, slub formation and return to base count.

Important Slub Parameters

A slub yarn is defined not only by the presence of thick places, but by the design of those thick places. The important parameters are slub thickness, slub length, slub frequency, spacing, ramp and base yarn count. Each of these parameters influences how the denim finally looks after dyeing, weaving and washing.

Parameter	Meaning	Effect on Fabric
Slub thickness	How much thicker the slub is compared to the base yarn	Determines visibility and boldness
Slub length	Length of the thick portion	Short slubs give speckled effects; long slubs give streaky effects
Slub frequency	Number of slubs per unit length	Higher frequency gives a busier surface
Slub spacing	Distance between two slubs	Controls regularity or randomness
Slub ramp	Transition from normal yarn to slub and back	Affects smoothness and yarn strength
Base yarn count	Normal yarn count between slubs	Controls fabric weight and ground appearance

For denim, these parameters are selected according to the desired look. A subtle cross-hatch denim may need moderate and irregular slubs. A bold vintage denim may require more prominent slubs. A highly fashionable denim may use a combination of slub effects in warp and weft.

Slub Yarn and Cross-Hatch Denim

Cross-hatch denim shows irregular lines in both directions of the fabric. The effect may be created when slub or irregular yarns are used in warp, weft, or both. When the slub yarn is dyed with indigo and woven into denim, the thick and thin places absorb and reflect colour differently. During washing, abrasion also affects these areas differently.

The result is a surface that looks uneven in a controlled way. The fabric may show cloudy streaks, grainy texture, vintage character or handmade appearance. This is especially valuable in fashion denim, where perfect uniformity is often less attractive than controlled imperfection.

What Is Multi-count Yarn?

A multi-count yarn is a yarn in which the yarn count changes deliberately along its length. Unlike simple slub yarn, where short thick places are introduced, multi-count yarn has controlled count variation over longer lengths.

In simple terms, the yarn may run as a finer count for one portion and then become coarser for another portion. These changes are not random defects; they are planned effects. When woven into denim, they create variation in fabric density, appearance and handle.

Multi-count yarn is useful when the designer wants a more extended change in fabric character rather than small slub-like irregularities. It can give a fabric a natural, uneven and engineered look.

Feature	Slub Yarn	Multi-count Yarn
Main effect	Thick places at intervals	Controlled count changes over length
Length of effect	Usually shorter	Usually longer
Visual appearance	Specks, streaks, knots and irregular texture	Broader variation in surface density
Main control	Slub length, thickness and frequency	Count level and length of count zone
Denim use	Vintage, cross-hatch and rugged looks	Engineered unevenness and count variation

What Is Multi-twist Yarn?

A multi-twist yarn is a yarn in which the yarn count remains constant, but the twist level changes along the yarn length. These different twist levels influence dye intake, yarn compactness, surface hairiness and fabric appearance.

Twist affects compactness, hairiness, strength, absorbency and dye behaviour. A higher twist zone may behave differently from a lower twist zone during dyeing and washing. When such yarn is used in denim, the variation in twist can produce subtle shade and texture changes.

This is particularly important in denim because indigo dyeing is a surface dyeing process. Indigo does not penetrate the cotton yarn fully in the same way as many other dyes. Therefore, small differences in yarn structure, twist and compactness can produce visible differences after dyeing and washing.

A simple conceptual relationship is:

\[ \text{Twist variation} \Rightarrow \text{compactness variation} \Rightarrow \text{dye and wash variation} \]

In multi-twist yarn, the fibre mass may remain the same, but the internal arrangement of fibres changes because of twist variation. A higher twist portion may become more compact. A lower twist portion may be more open and hairy. These differences affect how dye is taken up and how the yarn surface abrades during washing.

Visual 3: Side-by-side comparison of slub yarn, multi-count yarn and multi-twist yarn with their denim surface effects.

Comparison: Slub, Multi-count and Multi-twist

Slub yarn, multi-count yarn and multi-twist yarn are often discussed together because all three create fancy effects in denim. However, the mechanism behind each effect is different. For a merchandiser, buyer or fabric developer, this distinction is very important. Two fabrics may both be described as “fancy denim,” but the yarn engineering behind them may be completely different.

Yarn Type	What Changes?	What Remains More Stable?	Main Fabric Effect
Slub yarn	Thickness changes locally	Base yarn count between slubs	Thick-thin streaks and vintage texture
Multi-count yarn	Yarn count changes over longer lengths	Twist may be controlled	Broader count variation and uneven surface
Multi-twist yarn	Twist level changes	Yarn count remains constant	Shade variation and subtle texture change

Practical Points for Merchandisers and Buyers

When sourcing fancy denim, it is not enough to say “Amsler denim” or “slub denim.” The fabric developer or buyer should ask for more specific details. The effect may be in the warp, in the weft, or in both directions. It may be a slub effect, a multi-count effect, a multi-twist effect, or a combination.

Question to Ask	Why It Matters
Is the effect in warp, weft, or both?	Determines direction and strength of surface effect
Is it slub, multi-count, multi-twist, or a combination?	Identifies the actual yarn engineering
What is the base yarn count?	Affects fabric weight and construction
What is the slub frequency?	Controls how busy the surface looks
What is the slub thickness ratio?	Controls boldness of effect
What is the slub length range?	Controls whether effect is speckled or streaky
Is the yarn ring-spun or open-end?	Affects handle, strength, cost and appearance
How does the fabric look after wash?	Final denim effect appears after processing

The most important point is that fancy denim should be evaluated after washing, not only in grey or loom-state fabric. Many yarn effects become visible only after dyeing, finishing and garment wash.

Common Mistakes in Understanding Amsler Denim

One common mistake is to treat all slub denim as the same. In reality, slub denim can vary widely depending on slub length, thickness, frequency and yarn count. A mild slub and a bold slub may create completely different garments.

Another mistake is to confuse slub defects with designed slub effects. A defect is uncontrolled and may weaken the fabric or create unacceptable irregularity. A designed slub is intentional, repeatable and planned for a visual purpose.

A third mistake is to judge fancy denim only by the yarn. Denim appearance is the result of yarn, weave, dyeing, finishing and washing. The same slub yarn may look different in two fabrics if the construction, dye depth or wash recipe changes.

Final Understanding

Amsler slub, multi-count and multi-twist yarns represent the engineering side of fashion denim. They show how a fabric effect begins not merely at the washing stage, but much earlier at the yarn-design stage.

Slub yarn creates thick-thin variation. Multi-count yarn creates controlled changes in yarn count. Multi-twist yarn creates changes in twist level while keeping the count constant. All three can create distinctive denim effects, especially when combined with indigo dyeing, twill weaving and garment washing.

For a merchandiser, the key lesson is simple: fancy denim should be understood from yarn to fabric to wash. The surface effect seen by the consumer is the final result of several controlled technical decisions made much earlier in the manufacturing process.

Related Reading on Denim Manufacturing and Processing

• Some Notes on Denim Washing
• Critical Process Parameters- Denim Manufacturing
• Finished Properties of some Common Denim Fabrics
• warp preparation for rope dyeing-1

General Disclaimer

This article is intended for educational and practical understanding of textile and denim concepts. Actual mill practices, machine settings, yarn parameters and fabric results may vary depending on machinery, fibre quality, yarn engineering, dyeing conditions, weaving parameters, finishing route and garment washing process. Readers should verify technical settings with machinery suppliers, mill technologists and relevant testing standards before applying them in production.

How to crinkle a Fabric

In the basic process, the fabric is soaked in water. It is then twisted into the form of tight rope. It is then again twisted in on itself until becoming basically a ball of twisted fabric. The ends are tucked in so the fabric doesn't come untwisted. Then it is dried using microwave or other means. It is not recommended that the damp twisted fabric ball be left overnight otherwise it will mildew.

This is an amazing article on how to crinkle a fabric.

Now that you've finished reading this post, what are you going to do? You should go join the Forum.

What is the difference among Mulberry, Tussar ( Tasar), Muga and ERI Silk

The difference is in the type of worms producing the yarn and the types of leaves they eat.

Mulberry Silk is obtained from BOMBYX MORI feeding on MULBERRY leaves.


Tussar Silk is obtained from ANTHEREA MYLITTA feeding on ARJUN and ASAN leaves.


Muga Silk is obtained from ANTHEREA ASSAMENSIS feeding on SOM and SUALU leaves.

Eri Silk is obtained from CYNTHIA RICINI  feeding on CASTOR OIL leaves.

The eri silk worm is the only completely domesticated silkworm other than Bombyx mori.

Now that you've finished reading this post, what are you going do? You should go join the Forum.

Spinning Mills Vs. Garment Sector: Who will bear the Burden

This Article is related to Textile Industry in India

With the rising cotton yarn prices, the garment manufacturers are feeling the heat. Unable to pass on the price hike to the customers, they are turning back to the government for relief. The government has done its part by the following measures:

1. Government has withdrawn 7.67 percent DEPB Benefits for cotton yarn exports.

2. It has also introduced a cess on export of cotton yarn.

This step is take with the following assumptions:

a. Cotton yarn prices have increased because of rising export demands.

b. It is hampering the domestic garment producers and exporters.

c. While domestic markets are able to absorb the increased cost, recession hit West is unable to.

d. It is difficult to pass on the price increase to the customers.


But Will it lead to desirable results

Arguments against

a.  Social Argument: Spinning mills in the country have suffered huge losses during the last two years. They need to make some profits this year.

b. The problem could be solved by giving more assistance to the garment exports to absorb thee additional costs.

c. Less than 20% of cotton yarn produced get exported. Total exports of cotton yarn this year are less than that of last year.

d. The cut in DEPB will not affect much as long as the  global markets are able to absorb the additional costs.

e. The problem can also be solved by improving production efficiencies in Garment manufacturing units so that they can absorb the high yarn prices without passing them on to the customer.

f. It is not only raw-material prices that have gone up. Labor cost and power cost have also increased.

Arguments in Favour

a. In Tirupur, there is an 11% drop in shipments over last year of knitted fabrics.

b. Spinning mills have jacked up cotton yarn prices disproportionately vis-a-vis input costs. Thus eg. raw material prices have risen by 1.79%, but yarn prices have gone up by more than 10%.

What is your opinion ? Write your comments 


Now that you've finished reading this post, what are you going do? You should go join the Forum.

Principle of Soft Flow Dyeing Machine

Textile material can be dyed using batch, continuous or semi continuous process.

Batch processes are the most common method used to dye textile materials. There are three general types of batch dyeing machines:

1. In which fabric is circulated
2. In which dye bath is circulated
3.  In which both the bath and material is circulated.

Jet dyeing is the best example of a machine that circulated both the fabric and the dyebath. Jet dyeing is used for knitted fabrics. For Terry-towels soft flow dyeing is use.

In jet dyeing machine the fabric is transported by a high speed jet of dye liquid.

As seen in the figure, this pressure is created by venturi. A powerful pump circulates the dyed bath through a heat exchanger and the cloth chamber. Cloth guide tube helps in circulation of fabric.

Image Source

The vigorous agitation of fabric and dye formulation in the cloth increases the dyeing rate and uniformity. It minimizes creasing as the fabric is not held in any one configuration for very long.  The lower liquor ration allows shorter dye cycles and saves chemicals and energy.

In soft flow dyeing machines the fabric is transported by a stream of dye liquor. However, the transport is 

assisted by a driven lifter reel.

These machines use a jet having lower velocity that that used on conventional jet dyeing machines.

The soft flow machines are more gentle on the fabric than conventional jet machines.

The following are the features of a soft flow U-Type dyeing machine offered by Taxfab:

1. Machine pressure vessel and major wet parts made of stainless steel AISI 316/ 316 L, highly corrosion resistance material.

2. Heavy duty stainless steel centrifugal pump for optional dye liquor circulation. Highly efficient heat exchanger for fast heating and cooling. 

3.  A stainless steel filtering device placed in such a way for easy cleaning. 

4.   A unique design of jet nozzle can provide high discharge of liquore with subsequent pressure to ensure fast movement of fabric transport upto 300 Mtrs / Min., and the speed of fabric can be adjusted, required to desire quality. 

5. A mirror polished fabric transport perforated basket for easy trouble free movement of fabric from back to the front of machine, perforated basket fabricated in such a way that welding part does not come in contact with fabric.

6. For preparing chemical, colour kitchen tank is provided made out of stainless steel 316, with required valves for auto dozing. 

7. All valves is made of investment casting and is of stainless steel 3l6.

8.Electrical control panel with microprocessor to operate the machine is provided with pneumatic control circuits.

9. Magnetic level indicator duly calibrated for correct liquor measurement. 

10.       Take off reel with direct couple geared motor and stainless steel structure 

11. All safety device required for a pressure vessel is incorporated with the machine.

A front view and side of the machine offered by them is as given below:

Now that you've finished reading this post, what are you going do? You should go join the Forum.

Textile Testing for a Home Linen Product

Textile Testing is not something that is to be done on a finished product alone. There is a need to measure the effectiveness of each process so that necessary corrections can be done if needed. As an example, for a home linen fabric, the following testing procedures need to be carried out after every process.

Process of Manufacturing a Home-Linen Product

A typical home linen product is manufactured by the following process

Grey Fabric à Singeing and Desizing à Continuous Bleaching à Chainless Mercerisation à Continuous Dyeing range including Pad Dry and Pad Steam à Auto Jiggers with 20 cylinder drying range and open Stenterà Flat Bed Printingà Rotary Printing machine including loop stenter and polymeriser à stenterà Compressive Shrinkageà Calendering à Stitchingà Folding & Packing and Dispatch

The Following Testing procedures are needed at each stage of the process:

1.       Grey inspection and checking

Every supply of grey cloth needs a thorough check for quality of the material. The following checks need to be made

• Checking of damage made during the transit

• Checking of quantity supplied

• Checking of count, reed and pick

• Checking of GSM of the cloth

• Checking of width of the grey

• Checking of knots in every meter of grey

• Checking of any deformity of construction of grey

• Checking of any unusual cuts in the cloth

2.       Singeing and Scouring

After passing through the Singeing and Scouring process, the fabric undergoes the pilling test to determine the pilling and fuzzing characteristics of the fabric. Thereafter another test is conducted to determine the abrasion and pilling resistance of the fabric. If thesample fails this test as per specifications provided by the buyer then the grey cloth is sent back for Singeing.

3.       Desizing

De-sizing is the next step after which the TEGAWA test is conducted in a lab to check the presence of starch and other substances in the grey cloth and in the event the material fails this test then it is required to undergo the process of De-sizing.

4.       Bleaching

The absorbency test, whiteness test and ph testing are carried out in the lab after completion of the processes of bleaching, washing and drying.

5.       Mercerisation

Subsequent to the Mercerizing process the fabric undergoes ph testing and TWEDDEL and Barium tests to check the concentration of caustic in the fabric. The operation is repeated in case the fabric fails the tests.

6.       Dyeing

Post completion of the dyeing process, a number of tests are carried out to test the colour matching of the sample as per the buyer’s demand and colour fasteness of the cloth. The dyeing process has to be repeated in the event the fabric fails these tests.

7.       Printing

After completion of printing on the fabric, the tests relating to colour matching and fastness are carried out once again.

8.       Stenting

Once the Stenting process is completed, lab tests are conducted for carrying out the shrinkage tests, tensile strengths and tear strengths of the fabric.

Now that you've finished reading this post, what are you going do? You should go join the Forum.

Common Knit Fabrics

Common Knit Fabrics: A Practical Guide to Yarn Count, GSM and Fabric Structure

Knitted fabrics are among the most widely used fabrics in garments because they are comfortable, stretchable, flexible and suitable for body movement. T-shirts, polos, leggings, sweatshirts, thermals, innerwear, sportswear and many casual garments are made from different types of knit fabrics.

For a merchandiser, designer, buyer or textile student, it is not enough to know only the fabric name. One should also understand the relationship between yarn count, GSM, fabric structure, stretch, handle and end use.

Simple idea: In knit fabrics, yarns are converted into intermeshing loops. The shape, density and arrangement of these loops decide whether the fabric behaves like jersey, rib, interlock, pique, terry, fleece, waffle or thermal fabric.

1. What Makes Knit Fabrics Different from Woven Fabrics?

In woven fabrics, two sets of yarns — warp and weft — interlace with each other. In knitted fabrics, yarns form loops. These loops give knitted fabrics their natural stretch and flexibility.

The two important loop directions in weft-knitted fabrics are:

• Wales: vertical columns of loops.
• Courses: horizontal rows of loops.

The density of knitted fabric is often understood through courses per inch and wales per inch. A useful relationship is:

\[ \text{Stitch Density} = \text{Courses per inch} \times \text{Wales per inch} \]

Higher stitch density generally gives a more compact, stable and better-quality fabric, although it may reduce openness, air permeability and softness depending on yarn and finish.

2. GSM and Yarn Count in Knit Fabrics

GSM means grams per square metre. It tells us the weight of the fabric. In general, for the same fabric structure, a coarser yarn count gives a heavier GSM, and a finer yarn count gives a lighter GSM.

For example, in cotton single jersey:

• 40s cotton yarn may give a light fabric around 100–120 GSM.
• 30s cotton yarn may give a medium fabric around 140–155 GSM.
• 20s cotton yarn may give a heavier fabric around 180–200 GSM.
• 16s cotton yarn may give a heavy fabric around 230–250 GSM.

Technical point: GSM is not controlled by yarn count alone. It is also affected by loop length, machine gauge, stitch density, finishing, relaxation, compacting and shrinkage control.

3. Common Knit Fabrics and Their Uses

Fabric Type	Typical Structure	General Handle / Behaviour	Common Uses
Single Jersey	Single-knit structure with face and back clearly different	Light, flexible, curls at edges, good drape	T-shirts, tops, nightwear, casualwear
Slub Jersey	Jersey made with slub yarn	Irregular texture, casual look, uneven thick-thin effect	Fashion T-shirts, casual tops
Cotton/Spandex Jersey	Jersey with elastane/spandex plating	Stretchable, better recovery, close fit	Leggings, fitted tops, sportswear, innerwear
Pique	Textured knit with small raised cellular or honeycomb effect	More structured than jersey, breathable, slightly firm	Polo shirts, sports-casual garments
1x1 Rib	Alternate knit and purl wales	High widthwise stretch and recovery	Neck ribs, cuffs, waistbands, fitted garments
2x2 Rib	Two knit wales followed by two purl wales	Bulkier and more pronounced rib effect	Cuffs, trims, sweaters, body-fit garments
Interlock	Double-knit structure derived from rib	Smooth on both sides, stable, thicker, less curling	Premium T-shirts, babywear, innerwear, uniforms
Loop Back Terry	Back side has uncut loops	Absorbent, soft, heavier than jersey	Sweatshirts, joggers, hoodies, loungewear
Brushed Back Terry / Fleece	Terry back is brushed to raise fibres	Warm, soft, bulky, insulating	Winter sweatshirts, hoodies, tracksuits
French Terry	Looped back, usually smoother and lighter than fleece	Comfortable, absorbent, medium warmth	Premium casualwear, sweatshirts, athleisure
Waffle Knit	Raised square or honeycomb-like texture	Textured, absorbent, thermal pockets	Thermal tops, towels, robes, casualwear
Thermal Knit	Cellular structure designed to trap air	Warm, insulating, textured	Winter innerwear, base layers

4. Common GSM Ranges for Cotton Knit Fabrics

The following table gives broad industry-style reference ranges. Actual GSM may vary depending on machine settings, yarn quality, finishing and fabric relaxation.

Content	Yarn Count	Fabric Type	Approx. GSM Range
100% Cotton	40s Combed	Single Jersey	100–120
100% Cotton	36s Combed	Single Jersey	110–130
100% Cotton	30s Combed	Single Jersey	140–155
100% Cotton	26s Combed	Single Jersey	160–170
100% Cotton	24s Combed	Single Jersey	165–180
100% Cotton	20s Combed	Single Jersey	180–200
100% Cotton	18s Combed	Single Jersey	210–230
100% Cotton	16s Combed	Single Jersey	230–250
95/5 Cotton/Spandex	40s + 20D	Single Jersey	160–180
95/5 Cotton/Spandex	32s + 20D	Single Jersey	190–200
95/5 Cotton/Spandex	30s + 20D	Single Jersey	200–210
95/5 Cotton/Spandex	30s + 30D	Single Jersey	220–230
100% Cotton	30s Combed	Pique	180–190
100% Cotton	26s Combed	Pique	190–200
100% Cotton	24s Combed	Pique	200–220
100% Cotton	20s Combed	Pique	210–240
100% Cotton	18s Combed	Pique	240–250
100% Cotton	16s Combed	Pique	260–280
100% Cotton	40s Combed	1x1 Rib	140–160
100% Cotton	30s Combed	1x1 Rib	180–200
100% Cotton	24s Combed	1x1 Rib	220–240
100% Cotton	20s Combed	1x1 Rib	250–270
100% Cotton	16s Combed	1x1 Rib	300–340
100% Cotton	40s Combed	Interlock	180–200
100% Cotton	30s Combed	Interlock	220–240
100% Cotton	26s Combed	Interlock	240–260
100% Cotton	24s Combed	Interlock	270–280
100% Cotton	20s Combed	Interlock	300–320
100% Cotton	16s Combed	Interlock	330–350
100% Cotton	30s Combed	Loop Back Terry	180–200
100% Cotton	24s Combed	Loop Back Terry	220–230
100% Cotton	20s Combed	Loop Back Terry	240–260
100% Cotton	16s Combed	Loop Back Terry	280–290
95/5 Cotton/Spandex	30s	French Terry	240–260
80/20 Cotton/Poly	30s + 10s PC	3-End Fleece	300–340
80/20 Cotton/Poly	20s + 10s PC	2-End Fleece	260–300
100% Cotton	40s Combed	Waffle / Thermal	140–160
100% Cotton	30s Combed	Waffle / Thermal	180–200
100% Cotton	20s Combed	Waffle / Thermal	250–270
100% Cotton	16s Combed	Waffle / Thermal	300–340

5. How to Identify Jersey, Rib and Interlock Fabric

Single Jersey

Single jersey has a clear face and back. The face side shows vertical wales, while the back side shows a different loop appearance. It curls easily at the edges. When cut, it may curl towards the face or back depending on the direction of cut.

Rib

Rib fabrics show alternate face and reverse wales. They stretch strongly in the width direction. This is why rib fabrics are used for cuffs, collars, neckbands and waistbands. A 1x1 rib has one face wale and one reverse wale alternately. A 2x2 rib has two face wales and two reverse wales alternately.

Interlock

Interlock is a double-knit structure. It is usually smoother and more stable than single jersey. Both sides may look similar, and the fabric is thicker and less prone to curling. It is commonly used in babywear, innerwear, premium T-shirts and garments where better dimensional stability is required.

6. Pique Fabric

Pique is commonly used for polo shirts. It has a textured surface, often with a small honeycomb or cellular appearance. Compared with single jersey, pique usually feels more structured and slightly thicker. It allows better air circulation because of its textured construction.

A cotton pique polo shirt is therefore often preferred where the garment needs more body than a regular T-shirt but should still remain comfortable.

7. Terry, French Terry and Fleece

Terry fabrics have looped yarns on the back side. These loops improve absorbency and bulk. In loop back terry, the loops remain visible. In brushed back terry or fleece, the loops are brushed to create a soft, raised, warm surface.

French terry generally has a smoother face and looped back. It is used in sweatshirts, joggers and athleisure garments where the fabric should be comfortable but not as bulky as heavy winter fleece.

8. Two-End Fleece and Three-End Fleece

Fleece fabrics may be produced as two-end or three-end constructions. In simple terms:

• Two-end fleece generally uses two yarn systems.
• Three-end fleece uses three yarn systems and can give better fabric body, stability and surface quality.

Three-end fleece is generally considered a higher-quality construction because it can offer a better face, more stable structure and better print surface. However, it is also more expensive to produce because it uses more yarn and often requires finer yarns to maintain the required GSM and stitch density.

9. Waffle and Thermal Knits

Waffle knit has a raised, square or honeycomb-like texture. The structure can trap air in small pockets, giving a warmer feel. Thermal knits are also designed to trap air and provide insulation. These fabrics are used in winter innerwear, base layers, robes and comfort garments.

10. Why Spandex Changes the GSM

When spandex is added to cotton knit fabrics, the GSM often increases. This is because elastane adds mass and also changes the compactness of the structure. A 95/5 cotton/spandex single jersey fabric made with 30s cotton and 20D or 30D spandex can be much heavier than a 100% cotton single jersey made from the same cotton count.

Spandex also improves:

• stretch,
• recovery,
• fit,
• shape retention,
• comfort in body-hugging garments.

11. Practical Selection Guide for Merchandisers and Designers

End Use	Suggested Fabric	Typical GSM Direction	Reason
Light summer T-shirt	Single Jersey	120–160 GSM	Light, soft, breathable
Premium T-shirt	Interlock or heavier Single Jersey	180–240 GSM	Better body and stability
Polo shirt	Pique	180–240 GSM	Textured, structured, breathable
Leggings / fitted tops	Cotton/Spandex Jersey or Rib	180–260 GSM	Stretch and recovery
Cuffs / neck ribs	1x1 or 2x2 Rib	As per garment requirement	High stretch and recovery
Sweatshirt	French Terry or Fleece	240–340 GSM	Bulk, comfort and warmth
Winter innerwear	Thermal / Waffle Knit	180–300 GSM	Air-trapping structure

12. Important Quality Points in Knit Fabrics

While selecting or approving a knit fabric, the following points should be checked:

• GSM: whether it matches the buyer’s specification.
• Width: whether usable width is suitable for marker planning.
• Shrinkage: both lengthwise and widthwise shrinkage after washing.
• Spirality: especially important in single jersey fabrics.
• Stretch and recovery: especially for spandex fabrics.
• Fabric appearance: slubs, holes, needle lines, barre, shade variation.
• Hand feel: softness, compactness, bulk and drape.
• Colour fastness: washing, rubbing, perspiration and light fastness.

Buyer’s checklist: A fabric name alone is not a sufficient specification. A proper knit fabric specification should mention fibre content, yarn count, fabric structure, GSM, width, shrinkage, colour, finishing, stretch requirement and end use.

13. Conclusion

Knit fabrics are simple to wear but technically rich to understand. A single jersey, rib, interlock, pique, terry or fleece fabric differs not only in appearance but also in structure, GSM, stretch, stability, cost and end use.

For practical textile work, the most important learning is this: fabric structure, yarn count and GSM must be studied together. A 30s yarn in single jersey, pique, rib or interlock will not give the same fabric weight or behaviour. The loop arrangement changes everything.

Therefore, whenever we select a knit fabric, we should not ask only, “What is the GSM?” We should ask:

• What is the fibre content?
• What is the yarn count?
• What is the knit structure?
• What is the stitch density?
• What is the end use?
• What kind of comfort, stretch and stability is required?

This is how a simple knit fabric table becomes a practical tool for garment development, costing, quality control and merchandising.