Difference between Kanjivaram and Dharmavaram sarees

Kanjivarams for commercial use are mainly made in Salem and Dharmavaram clusters. 

In Dharmavaram, zari is used both/either in warp and weft, usually mixed with Resham. In Salem, Resham ( Silk is used in warp and weft). In salem, brocades are created using extra thread figuring. Also Kuttu pallu is used in Dharmavaram in most of the sarees for creating contrast colors in pallu. In salem, tie-and-dye  is used for the same. Also in Salem Butas are used in the sarees, as compared to Dharmavarams that use brocades. 

In Kanjivaram, stiffening is done during polishing as compared to Dharmavaram where softening is done. 

Dharmavaram sarees are cheaper than the Kanjivaram, because they use zari in warp as compared to Kanjivaram, that use pure silk. 

Here is a list of other differences: 

Weaving Technique: The weaving technique used for Kanjivaram sarees is known as "korvai," which involves separately weaving the body and border of the saree and then interlocking them. In contrast, Dharmavaram sarees are woven in a "pit loom" technique, where the entire saree is woven as a single piece, including the body, border, and pallu (the loose end of the saree).

Motifs and Designs: Kanjivaram sarees are known for their rich and intricate designs, often featuring traditional South Indian motifs such as temple borders, checks, and floral patterns. Dharmavaram sarees, on the other hand, typically showcase broader borders with contrasting colors and intricate designs inspired by nature, mythology, and local culture.

Pallu Design: The pallu of a Kanjivaram saree usually features elaborate designs and motifs that complement the overall look of the saree. In contrast, Dharmavaram sarees often have a plain or minimally designed pallu, allowing the focus to be on the border and body of the saree.

Color Palette: Kanjivaram sarees are known for their vibrant and contrasting color combinations, with a wide range of options available. Dharmavaram sarees, on the other hand, often feature more subtle and harmonious color schemes.

Both Kanjivaram and Dharmavaram sarees are highly regarded and cherished for their beauty, craftsmanship, and cultural significance. Whether it's the weaving technique, designs, or regional influences, these sarees showcase the artistic diversity and heritage of South India.

Difference in Motifs 

The motifs used in Kanjivaram and Dharmavaram sarees differ in terms of their design elements and inspirations. Here are the general characteristics of motifs found in both saree types:

Kanjivaram Saree Motifs:

Temple Borders: Kanjivaram sarees are renowned for their temple border motifs, which draw inspiration from the architectural designs of South Indian temples. These motifs often feature intricate depictions of temple carvings, deities, peacocks, elephants, and other elements associated with temple art and culture.

Checks and Stripes: Another common motif in Kanjivaram sarees is the use of checks and stripes. These patterns can be either small or large and are typically created using contrasting colors. The checks and stripes add a distinctive visual appeal to the saree.

Floral Patterns: Floral motifs are often seen in Kanjivaram  sarees, representing natural elements and incorporating various flowers like lotus, jasmine, and roses. These floral designs are intricately woven into the saree to create an elegant and timeless look.

Peacock Motifs: Peacocks hold a special place in South Indian culture, and their motifs are frequently used in Kanjeevaram sarees. Peacock-inspired designs are woven into the pallu or border of the saree, showcasing the grace and beauty of these majestic birds.

Dharmavaram Saree Motifs:

Nature-inspired Motifs: Dharmavaram sarees often feature motifs inspired by nature, such as flowers, leaves, vines, and trees. These motifs are intricately woven into the saree to depict the beauty and abundance of the natural world.

Mythological Motifs: Dharmavaram sarees also draw inspiration from Hindu mythology and folklore. Motifs representing gods, goddesses, and mythological characters are commonly seen, symbolizing devotion and cultural heritage.

Peacock and Swan Motifs: Similar to Kanjivaram sarees, Dharmavaram sarees often incorporate peacock and swan motifs. These motifs are believed to symbolize grace, purity, and beauty, and they add an element of charm to the overall design.

Geometric Patterns: Dharmavaram sarees occasionally feature geometric patterns, such as squares, diamonds, and triangles, adding a contemporary touch to the traditional design. These geometric motifs are often combined with other elements to create a visually striking composition.

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Polishing in Kanjivaram Sarees

Polishing involves application of gum and winding the saree onto cloth rolls. The aim is to put the stiffness in the fabric. 

Polishing in Salem Kanjivaram sarees is done only for Powerloom sarees after they are made. The Gaund ( Gum ) is applied by hand after the saree is made before it is wound on the square planks. Then it is made to dry in the sunlight for about six hours. 

For handloom sarees, it is applied while it is made. After every one feet or more of weaving. The gum ( Pasai) is applied. 

In Dharmavaram, instead of stiffening, the softening is done, as it is mostly zari. They also use shampoo to make it shining. 

In Handloom fabrics in Dharmavaram, they use bisleri water to make it shining. 

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Costing of a Typical Handloom Kanjivaram Saree

Weavers ( piecework)                                                              :                2500 x 10 = 25000 Rs.

Zari Mark for Sarees 10 Sarees Warp                                      :               1200 x 30 = 36000 Rs.  ( Price of one Mark: 1200 Rs.)

Zari Mark for Sarees Weft                                                       :                1200 x 10 = 12000 Rs. 

Design & Punching Cards                                                       :                13000+2000 = 15000 Rs

( 240 Hooks each on Border, 

Pallu, 2 x Body: total 4 Jacquards) 

Silk for Body 10 Sarees  (18-20 denier 2 ply)                       :                 2 kg x 6000  = 12000 Rs.

Silk For Border 10 Sarees                                                      :                 1 kg x 6000  = 6000 Rs. 

Dyeing                                                                                    :                                        = 1500 Rs. 

Total                                                                                        :                  1,07,500

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All About Zari in Kanjivaram Sarees

These are the following qualities of zari used in Kanjivaram  and Varanasi Sarees. First lets understand some terms related to zari:

1 Mark: 4 spools with net weight of 240 grams ( Total weight comes out to be 311 grams). One spool contains 2800 to 3000 yards length.  

1. Tested or Plastic Zari or Metallic Zari

This type of zari is purely artificial in which fused plastic is coated with metal like aluminum. This metallized sheet is dyed in various colors according to the requirements and converted into thin tapes, which are finally wound on a core of polyester, viscose or nylon to make the final product. Used in the lowest qualities of Varanasi sarees specially in Dupions. Normally price is about 250 to 300 Rs. per mark. 

2. German Silver Zari

This is also used in the low cost Kanjivaram sarees. Generally it is 30 D zari. Here the core is polyester, with 0.2%-0.3%  ( 2 to 3 grams/kg of copper)  silver wrapped on copper . Normally price is around 720 Rs. per mark. 

3. German Silk Fast Zari

This is generally used in the medium price Kanjivaram Sarees. Generally the denier is about 30. Here the core is pure silk, with 0.2%-0.3%  ( 2 to 3 grams/kg of copper)  silver wrapped on copper . Normally price is around 1200 Rs. per mark. 

4. Half Fine Zari

This is generally used in the premium Kanjivaram Sarees. The gold content is about 0.01% (1gm) to 0.02%(2gm) per kg of copper. The Silk yarn is used in the core. The price is between 1800 -2200 Rs.  per mark. 

5. Pure Zari

It is made only on order Silk yarn is used as core, over that silver and than plated with gold. In one of the test reports, the following were the results: Gold 0.13, Silver: 18.42 and copper 56.61. 

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How to Test for Pure Zari in Kanjivaram and other Sarees

A few testing laboratories in Kanchipuram provide this service. This is what this portal has to say about the testing method:

In order to build the confidence and credibility among the customers and in the industry about the quality of zari in silk fabrics, testing is very important and much required.  Hitherto, for testing metal contents in zari, destructive method of testing has been carried out.  Now, the testing of zari samples and zari made fabric are carried out by Non-destructive testing (XRF Analyser), which is a unique one.  The technical know-how of the project was jointly developed by Technology Information, Forecasting and Assessment Councils (TIFAC) and Tamil Nadu Zari with the guidance of the Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research (IGCAR, Kalpakkam).

The Zari is sold in terms of MARC.  Weight of one marc is 242 grams.  The composition of the marc is indicated below: -

                              SILVER     55        to     57%

                              SILK         22         to     24%

                              GOLD    0.59        to   0.60%

                              COPPER   20        to     22%

RAW MATERIALS

The required raw materials for the production of the gold zari are:-

Ø      Silver wire        -  76 to 77%

Ø      Silk                   -   13 X 15 denier

Ø      Gold                 -   24 carat.

The information below talks about the XRF technique

Source    

XRF (X-ray fluorescence) is a non-destructive analytical technique used to determine the elemental composition of materials. XRF analyzers determine the chemistry of a sample by measuring the fluorescent (or secondary) X-ray emitted from a sample when it is excited by a primary X-ray source. Each of the elements present in a sample produces a set of characteristic fluorescent X-rays (“a fingerprint”) that is unique for that specific element, which is why XRF spectroscopy is an excellent technology for qualitative and quantitative analysis of material composition.

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What is Single, 1.5, double warp in Kanjivaram Sarees

1. Kanjivaram Sarees Use 20-22 denier 3 ply filaments. 

2. Single warp means 100 ends per inch. For a 49 inches loom, the number of ends in a single warp is 4900. 

3. 1.5 warp means 150 ends per inch. For a 49 inches loom, the number of ends in a 1.5 inches warp is 7350. 

4. Double warp means 200 ends per inch. For a 49 inches loom, the number of ends in a 2 inches warp is 9800. 

5. Generally, the number of picks are more for single warp, then for 1.5 warp or double warp. 

6. Generally 72, 74, 76 PPi is used. 

Minimum Width of Handloom and Power loom Sarees in Salem

	Handloom	Powerloom
Single Warp	46-47.5	44-46
1.5 Warps	46-47.5	44.5-46
2 Warps	46.47.5	45-46

 

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What are the Various Wild Silk Yarns

Source

1. Reeled Tussar/ Tussar Raw Silk: It is reeled from Tussar cocoons using different appliance. Reeled Tussar is finer in nature.
   
   
2. TussarGicha: Yarn drawn by hand out of Tussar cocoons without any twist.
   
   
3. Tussar Katia: Yarn spun out of Tussar waste after opening and cleaning.
   
   
4. Tussar Jhuri: Yarn spun out of uncleaned Tussar waste without subjecting it to opening and cleaning process.
   
   
5. Balkal yarn: Yarn spun out of Tussar cocoon peduncles, after boiling in alkaline solution and opened up.
   
   
6. Tussar Spun Silk: Yarn spun in the mill out of Tussar silk waste.
   
   
7. Muga Raw Silk: Yarn reeled from Muga cocoons.
   
   
8. Muga Gicha: Yarn drawn by hand out of muga cocoons without any twist.
   
   
9. Hand Spun Endi/ Eri Silk: Yarn spun by hand appliances from Eri cocoons.
   
   
10. Mill Spun Eri Yarn: Yarn spun in the mill from Eri cocoons.

You can find here the various wild silk fabrics and how to take care of silk. 

How Cocoons are measured in Wild Silk ( Vanya Silk)

 Tussar Cocoons:

The unit of measurement of tussar cocoons is Kahan. Number of Cocoons per Kahan vary in different states. In MP one Kahan has 1000 cocoons while in Maharashtra it has 4000 Cocoons. 

About 1200 cocoons are required to produce one kg of yarn. 

ERI

The Eri cocoons are measured on the basis of weight ( kg)

MUGA

The Muga cocoons are transacted in thousand numbers. About 5000 cocoons are required to produce 1 kg of Muga Raw Silk.

Source

What do you Mean by Vanya Silk

 Non mulberry silks such as Tussar, Muga and Eri are called Vanya silks. 

Production Trends ( 2010-11)

Vanya Silk contributed to about 20% of the total raw silk in India.

Eri, Tussar and Muga contributed to about 64%, 33% and 3% of the total Vanya silk

It contributes to about 10% of the total exports of silk goods 

Tussar Silk

Silk Worm : Antheraea mylitta and Antheraea proylei

Feed on: Asan,  Arjun and Oak

India is the second largest producer or Tussar Silk

History: Ram's nuptial gift to Sita included Tussar Silk

Muga Silk

Silk Worm : Antheraea assamensis

Feed on: Som and Sualu

Use of Muga Yarn instead of Zari is finding its support in Indian Weavers

Source

Difference among Hand-knotted, Hand-tufted, Kilim and Durries

Hand Knotted Carpets

They are hand knotted on the stretched weft and fastened with a weft. 

Kilim

Kilims are woolen flat weaves with slits where the pattern begins or ends in a different colored yarn. 

Dhurries or Durries

These are Indian counterparts of Kilim. These are flat weaves traditionally woven in all Indian families. Here the yarn are joined during the weave so as not to create gaps and slits.

Hand Tufted

90% of the carpets are hand tufted carpets. In tufted carpets the pile appearance is similar to the knotted carpets but has lesser durability as the pile yarn is knot knotted and simply anchored in the base material. 

Hand Woven Carpets

It is a rather broad category that includes hand knotted carpets as well as flat weaves carpets ( Durries and Kilims) 

Quality

The quality of a mg is judged by its density. The more the number of knots per square inch, better the quality. Dense carpets are more durable and have finer and more detailed patterns. A very good quality knotted mg may have 350 to 1000 knots per square inch depending upon the material. 

A tufted carpet is not as durable and strong as the knotted one. Since it is a cheaper option, one must judge the kind of backing material and glue are used. Apart from this, the tightness of the tuft is the only thing that can ensure some life of the hand tufted carpets.

Source

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Three Million Page Views !! Thank you Readers !

My Textile Notes has crossed three million page views. It goes to show how beneficial this blog has been to the viewers. I will strive to make it as relevant and informative to the viewers in the future as well. Thanks...

What causes Pilling in the Fabrics

Pilling is characterized by little balls of fibers attached on the fabric surface. These are entangled in nature and do not look good on the garment. These are caused by the fibers which got loose during washing and wearing. Due to rubbing action these take the form of a ball.

Pilling is always known in wool specially in garments with soft twisted yarns like Angora. However, with the emergence of synthetic fibers the tendency is aggravated.

What happens is that because the strength of the fibers which "anchor" the pills is low in the natural fibres, pills get formed and removed. But in case of synthetic fibers, which have more strength. the pills remain on the garment and accumulate and become worse.

Why pills get formed. It is due to migration of fibers from the yarn on to the surface of the fabric. So any treatment that reduces this migration tendency will reduce the pilling tendency. Thus increasing the twist in the yarn reduces the pilling tendency as it binds the fibers onto yarn.

The following are factors affecting Pilling

Fiber Factors

1. Fiber Nature: As explained natural fibers are less susceptible to pilling than synthetic

2. Fiber Fineness: Finer fibers are more susceptible to pilling as there is more propensity to bending. For example Angora is more susceptible to pilling than normal wool

3. Fiber Friction: More crimp in the fiber, less is the crimp as the migration tendency of the fibers is reduced.

4. Fiber Length: Shorter fibers are more susceptible to pilling as the migration of fibers is increased.

5. Fiber Strength: As explained earlier, strong fibers increase pilling tendency as there the pills find it hard to dislodge from the garment surface.

Yarn Factors 

1. Yarn Count: Coarser the count, more fibers are there in the cross section which leads to higher pilling tendency.

2. Yarn Twist: As explained earlier, more yarn twist leads to less crimp as it binds the fibers more and reduces its yarn tendency.

3. Yarn Finishing: Unsinged yarns have more tendency to pill.

4. Incompatible Blends: If the blend contains components that are incompatible with respect to fiber length and other parameters, tendency to pill increases.

Fabric Parameters

Closer fabric structures lead to less pilling.

If the fabric is subjected to long processes in finishing and processing there is more friction and hence more pilling is formed.

Use of anti-pilling finishes can reduce the tendency of pilling. 


Apart from technological factors, a few of the important factors for pilling are:

1. The person wearing the garment, if that person is particularly hard on garments, pilling tendency is more.
2. There are some susceptible parts of garments such as collars, cuffs, pocket edges which are more susceptible to pill, as there is more rubbing/chafing of the parts.

3. Garments which are frequently washed are more susceptible to pilling.

Testing of Pilling

A very nice introduction to pilling testing is dealt in this NPTEL lecture. 

Sources
1 2- Principles of Textile Testing- J. E. Booth


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What are the three Primary Colors used in Traditional Handblock Printing of Rajasthan

Here we are talking about the handblock printing process as practiced in the towns of Bagru, Pipar and Balotra. The three primary colors used are 1. Red 2. Blue 3. Yellow

A combination of these produce all the different colors.

1. The application of red dye is called Ghan Rangai. For ghan grangai, the alum mordanted fabric is introduced into a heated water bath along with Alizarin. It produces the red, wherever the fabric is mordanted with Alum.
2. The application of Indigo for producing blue color is called Nil Rangai. In this an Indigo dye vat is prepared and fabric is introduced into it and the fabric is dipped into it for 5 to 10 minutes. Then it is taken out and spread into the sun. After this it is again introduced into the bath, this goes on until the required color depth is obtained
3. The third primary shade, yellow is obtained using Nasphal Putai. Nasphal dye is a cold solution of anar ka chhilka ( pomegranate rind) and haldi ( turmeric) which is typically smeared ( Potai or putai) onto the cloth surface after all other dye and print process has been completed.  As an overdye, nasphal generates a number of other shades: over indigo it creates green, over kasumal it gives orange, and over red dyed areas it results in softer red-ochre shades. This smearing is done quickly and after smearing, the cloth is laid in the sun "until it smells cooked". After that it is rinsed in Alum solution, dried and aged and washed thoroughly. 

Source

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Difference between Sanganer and Bagru/Pipar/Balotra styles of Handblock Printing

 In Sanganer and Jaipur Style of printing, red and black motifs are printed on a yellowish cream ground- This is called the Syahi Begar Style.

In the printing paste Syahi ( Iron acetate) and Begar ( Alum) are the mordanting components. Traditionally Potash Alum is used which is a hydrated double sulphate of aluminium or potassium. These days aluminium sulphate is used.

This is how Syahi paste is made - Scrap iron horseshoes are removed from rust by scorching, then mixed with Gur or sheera ( Unrefined molasses) and covered with plane water, during which the sugar ferments and reacts with iron to make iron acetate solution.

To give deepar shades of red during dyeing, a little of syahi paste is sometimes blended to the begar mix.

Interestingly proportions are tested and judged by taste- large amount of alum (producing deeper shades) are described as producing a 'crackle' on the tongue. 

Before Syahi and Begar is applied, the cloth is first desized using local methods ( Hari Sarna), then it is prepared for mordanting using Myrobalan (Harda or Peela Karna).

Usually any areas where black is required are printed first, using syahi paste. Following this, where red is required will be filled in using the begar ( alum mordant) paste.

In Pipar/Sanganer/Balotra, apart from the above methods, they are also printed using indigo-dabu resist methods, which produces colored red and yellow motifs on blue, green and dark-browinsh backgrounds.

Source: https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/29072510.pdf

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Is Turkey Red Same as Alizarin

The answer is yes, the color obtained from Alizarin after mordanting with Aluminium metal salts is also called Turkey Red. This is the red color popularly used in Dabu, Bagru, Tarapur, Kalamkari and Ajrak handblock prining of India. Alizarin is a mordant dye. Mordant is an additive which improves the ability of a dye to bond to the fabric. 

Mordant dyes are used in combination with salts of metal ions, typically aluminum, chromium, iron, and tin. The metal ions adhere to the fabric and serve as points of attachment for the dye molecules.So Aluminium present in Alum is used to generate that famous red color of alizarin. Other metal salts can be used as mordants for alizarin with some interesting color changes results. For example iron sulfate as the mordant imparts a rich brown color to the dyed fabric.

Alizarin, also spelled Alizarine, a red dye originally obtained from the root of the common madder plant, Rubia tinctorum, in which it occurs combined with the sugars xylose and glucose. The cultivation of madder and the use of its ground root for dyeing by the complicated Turkey red process were known in ancient India, Persia, and Egypt; the use spread to Asia Minor about the 10th century and was introduced into Europe in the 13th.

Laboratory methods of preparing alizarin from anthraquinone were discovered in 1868, and, upon commercial introduction of the synthetic dye in 1871, the natural product disappeared from the market for textile dyes.

There is a difference in Turkey Red and Turkey Red Oil. Turkey red oil, also called sulphonated (or sulfated) castor oil, is made by adding sulfuric acid to vegetable oils, most notably castor oil.It was the first synthetic detergent after ordinary soap. It is used in formulating lubricants, softeners, and dyeing assistants.

A trivia- Alizarin is something of a fungicide and pediculoside (that is why it found in the soldiers uniforms).

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Sources:

https://www.academia.edu/24482692/Natural_Dyeing_Fabric_dyeing_with_Madder

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alizarin

How to find the Number of Ends in a fabric when weight, count and Length of Warp is Given

How to find the Number of Ends in a fabric when weight, count and Length of Warp is Given

This calculation is taken from "Textile Calculations" by Ashenhurst

For cotton

Multiply the weight of the yarn in lbs x Yarn count x 840)/yards of warp required

Change 840 to appropriate systems for other fibers.

eg. It is desired to make 3 kg of 40s cotton into a warp 56 meters long, how many ends will it contain:

1 kg = 2.2 lbs
1 m = 1.09 yards

So the number of ends that it will contain is

(3 x 2.2 x 40 x 840)/(56 x 1.09)= 3633 ends.



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Fiber - Specific Gravity

Fiber	Specific Gravity
Acetate Rayon	1.30-1.33
Acrylic	1.14-1.18
PVC	1.38-1.70
Glass Fiber	2.50
Modacrylic	1.31-1.37
Nylon	1.10-1.14
Polyester	1.22-1.38
Polyolefin	0.90-0.95
Cupramommum Rayon	1.52
Viscose Rayon	1.52
Carbon High Modulus	1.77
Carbon Ultra High Mod	1.96
Alpaca	1.31
Angora Rabbit fur	1.10
Camel Hair	1.31
Cashmere	1.31
Cotton- Solid Fiber	1.54
Cotton Overall fiber	1.35
Linen	1.50
Flax	1.50
Hemp	1.50
Jute	1.50
Mink	1.26
Mohair	1.31
Musk Rat	1.26
Rabbit-Common	0.92
Ramie	1.55
Silk Weighted	>1.60
Silk- B. Mori (Raw)	1.33
Asbestor	2.1-2.8
Silk- Tussar	1.32
Wool ( non-modullated)	1.31

Dimensions of Some Animal and Vegetable Textile Fibers

Source: Handbook of Textile Technical Data - TIT&S Bhiwani

Is Crepe Fabric made up of Polyester ?

This is a question which has been asked by many of my readers and many forms.

The explanation lies in the difference between fabric and fiber of which it is made of. So Crepe fabric can be made of cotton, viscose or polyester depending upon the end use. Here crepe is a form of weave, which can be done on any of the fibers.

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Technical Parameters of a PolyCot Saree

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About Tearing Strength of Fabrics

Tear strength is more important in the assessment of "serviceability" of the fabric. In order to tear a cloth, the threads are broken singly. It is therefore a frequent mode of fabric failure.

The factors which contribute to the resistance to the tear is :

a. Strength of the yarn normal to the tear.Suppose you are trying to tear the weft yarns. Then those yarns need to be stronger.

b. Freedom of movement of the yarn in the direction of the tear. As in a. The freedom of movement in the warp yarns should be there, which can be done by reducing the EPI.

There are two types of Tear strength measurement come into play. First is Initial Tear Strength: It is when the load is applied on the fabric to tear it. This load is always higher than the average tear strength. It is because of the fact that up to this load, yarn crimp removal and sliding takes place. But once this point is reached the load is instantly transferred to the successive yarns and the tear strength obtained is known as average tear strength. 

These are ways that the tear strength in a fabric can be affected:

1. By reducing the thread count in the direction opposite to the direction of test, the tearing strength can be increased. So if you are tearing warpways-means you are tearing weft yarn- reduce the thread count of warp yarn-means reduce EPI.

2. Use yarns with the high breaking load in the direction of test to increase tearing strength. Means take stronger yarns in weft, as in example in point 1. This is the most important factor.

3. Decrease friction between yarns to increase tearing testing strength. This allows threads to group closer together under the tearing force, so instead of the successive breakage of individual threads, the action becomes more of a strength test on plied yarns. Decreased friction allows this grouping.

4. Related to 3, is the effect of the weave. Thus a twill or 2/2 matt structure allows the threads to group better than a plain weave. So Twill or 2/2 exhibit better resistance to tearing than plain weave.

5. Related to the point 1, high sett fabrics preclude thread movement hence the assistance by thread group is reduced.

6. Special Finishes such as drip dry or crease resistance finishes may reduce tearing strengths.




Source: 1 , Textile Testing by Booth, 3,

Video below gives the tearing testing procedure:

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Can Wet Rubbing Fastness Greater than Dry Rubbing Fastness

Usually, Wet rubbing fastness ratings are lower than those of dry rubbing. However, there may be cases when it is reversed. As per Texanlab manual:

"This is sometimes observed in polyester fabrics. In these cases, the friction coefficient in wet crocking is lower than  dry crocking. Thus, in contrast to cotton, the colorfastness to wet crocking for polyester is higher than its colorfastness to dry crocking."

Other Resources:

1

How a Rubbing Fastness Tester Works. Watch this video:

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Jaipur Printing- Jajam Print

Textile with Jajam prints used to play a great role in the social life of Rajasthan. These textiles used to get spread out on special occasion. It used to be printed in the region of Chittor, where it is spread for playing chaupad, an Indian version of Chess.

An amazing account of this craft is found here.  Anokhi Museum Blog talks a lot about it.


This video is posted by Mr. Brij Ballabh Udaiwal on Facebook:




Reference

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What are Rapid Fast Dyes

The Rapid dyes are stabilized azoic dyestuffs. These are also called as Napthol dyes

 They are applied to the fibers in one operation.

 Bright full colors are obtained with very good fastness properties.

Printing and dyeing with Rapid fast dyes is getting very popular specially in the traditional garments such as sarees. 

Rapid fast dyes is a class of Azoic dyes. These dyes contain an insoluble azo group. These dyes are not found in the readymade form. The dye is produced by a reaction between two components. These components are: 

1. Coupling compound ( Napthol)

2. Di-azo compound or di-azo salt. 

They have excellent wash fastness and light fastness properties, provided these are produced properly.

How the reaction Takes place

1. Naptholisation: Napthols are insoluble in water and they are converted into water soluble compound by treating with alkali. The material is treated with this solution. 

It is important to remove excess napthol from material for improving rubbing fastness. This is done with the help of centrifuging, squeezing or vacuus extraction. 

2. Diazotisation:  A base containing amino group (-NH2) ( which is the dye stuff), reacts with Sodium nitrite to form a solution of diazonium salt by reacting with HCL of H2SO4 in presence of 0 to 50 deg C temperature. Ice is used sometimes for the low temperature, hence they are also called Ice-colors.

3. Coupling: The treated material from the first step is then put in a bath containing diazonium solution to carry out the coupling. Thus the color is produced inside the fabric. The pH is very important here.

The material then is agitated with first water and then boiling water to remove un-reacted color and to enlarge the size of color molecules inside the fiber. 

These are used for producing bright shades of color such as orange, red, scarlet, navy and black.  

These are also used for printing backgrounds so that the foreground becomes prominent. Hence these are suitable where large areas of ground need to be colored. Rapid dyes are mixed with water and boiled with caustic soda and a gum paste. A receipe for rapid dyes is given here.

Certain azo dyes are known to release some aromatic amines which are considered to be carcinogenic. A lot of countries have put ban on these dyes, as discharge of the untreated dyes lead to the toxic pollution of the atmosphere and water. 

Watch this video on how to dye with Azoic dyes in Laboratory

Source: 1 2 3

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What is Space Dyeing and What are Space Dyed Fabrics

Space dyeing is a yarn dyeing technique in which a multicolor or blurred dye look is created. It creates a textured pattern and provides more color in the fabric.

Space dyeing can be done in any type of fiber- natural or synthetic. It is normally done on polyester, cotton, rayon, nylon and wool. 

In this method, the yarn is dyed at intervals along its length. There are two methods to produce. In the knit-de-knit method, the yarn is knitted first. Then the knitted cloth is dyed and then it is de-knitted. As dye cannot penetrate the areas where yarn cross, it creates alternate dyed and undyed spaces.

 In the other method, which is also a high speed method, the yarn must be wound on some dye package. It can be Dye Spring, plastic tube or steel tube. The chemicals are color mixtures are mixed and put in the individual color tanks of a space dyeing machine. Dyes are then injected using needles which are inserted into the package. 

https://www.cottonworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/Dyeing_Booklet.pdf

After dyeing the packages are placed in yarn conditioning machine for fixation and subsequently washed.

The below image gives the process steps

http://www.jogson.com/company_brochure.pdf

Multiple pattens can be produced as given below

http://www.jogson.com/company_brochure.pdf

Sources

1 2 3 4 5


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What is the difference of Modal from Viscose

What Is the Difference Between Modal and Viscose?

Modal is often described casually as “better viscose” or “a softer form of rayon.” That statement is partly correct, but it is not complete enough for a textile student, merchandiser or quality professional.

Both viscose and modal belong to the family of regenerated cellulose fibres. Both begin with cellulose, generally obtained from wood pulp, and both are manufactured by dissolving cellulose and regenerating it again into fibre form. Therefore, the difference is not that viscose is synthetic and modal is natural. Both are man-made cellulosic fibres.

The real difference lies in wet strength, wet modulus, dimensional stability, and behaviour during use and washing. Modal was developed to overcome some of the important limitations of ordinary viscose, especially its weakness and deformability in wet condition.

Simple answer: Viscose is a regenerated cellulose fibre known for softness, absorbency, drape and affordability. Modal is a modified high-wet-modulus regenerated cellulose fibre designed to retain better strength and shape when wet.

Table of Contents

1. What Is Viscose?
2. What Is Modal?
3. Is Modal a Brand Name or a Generic Fibre Name?
4. Why Was Modal Developed?
5. The Main Technical Difference: Wet Modulus
6. Modal vs Viscose: Comparison Table
7. Is Modal Stronger Than Viscose?
8. Why Does Modal Feel Soft?
9. Can Modal Be Blended With Other Fibres?
10. Is Modern Viscose Now Identical to Modal?
11. Is Modal More Sustainable Than Viscose?
12. Practical Meaning for Merchandisers
13. Common Misunderstandings
14. Final Summary
15. Sources

1. What Is Viscose?

Viscose is one of the most widely used man-made cellulosic fibres. It is popular because it gives a soft feel, good absorbency, attractive drape and comfort similar to natural cellulosic fibres such as cotton.

In fabric form, viscose can look elegant and flow beautifully. That is why it is widely used in dresses, sarees, kurtas, scarves, linings, tops, printed fabrics and many other fashion products.

However, ordinary viscose has one important weakness: it loses a significant part of its strength when wet. When viscose fabric is wet, the fibre becomes more sensitive to stretching, distortion and dimensional change. This is why viscose garments often require careful washing, gentle squeezing and controlled drying.

The key limitation of viscose is not softness. Viscose is soft. The limitation is its wet mechanical behaviour.

2. What Is Modal?

Modal is also a regenerated cellulose fibre, but it should not be treated as ordinary viscose with a fashionable name. Technically, modal is a high-wet-modulus regenerated cellulose fibre.

The phrase “high wet modulus” is very important. In simple terms, modulus refers to the resistance of a fibre to extension under load. A low-modulus fibre stretches more easily, while a higher-modulus fibre resists stretching better.

When we say high wet modulus, we mean that the fibre resists stretching and deformation better when it is wet. This is the central reason modal behaves better during washing, wet processing and repeated use.

In a simplified form, the idea of modulus can be represented as:

\[ \text{Modulus} = \frac{\text{Stress}}{\text{Strain}} \]

In practical textile language, a fibre with higher wet modulus will resist deformation better in wet condition. Modal is valued because it gives the comfort of regenerated cellulose while improving one of the biggest weaknesses of ordinary viscose.

3. Is Modal a Brand Name or a Generic Fibre Name?

Modal is a generic fibre name. It is not a company-specific name in the way that a trademark or brand name is company-specific.

This clarification is important because many consumers know modal through commercial names such as TENCEL™ Modal or LENZING™ Modal. In such cases, TENCEL™ or LENZING™ is the brand or company identifier, while modal is the generic fibre type.

Generic fibre name	Brand or company example
Modal	TENCEL™ Modal, LENZING™ Modal
Lyocell	TENCEL™ Lyocell
Viscose	LENZING™ ECOVERO™ Viscose
Polyester	Trevira, Dacron and other branded forms

Therefore, it is better to say that Lenzing is a major producer of branded modal fibres, not that modal itself belongs exclusively to Lenzing.

4. Why Was Modal Developed?

Ordinary viscose has many advantages. It is soft, absorbent, comfortable, drapey and dyeable. But it also has important limitations: lower wet strength, easy stretching in wet condition, poorer dimensional stability, and a greater need for care during laundering.

Modal was developed to improve these limitations. It gives the softness and absorbency of regenerated cellulose, but with better wet strength and better shape retention.

This makes modal especially suitable for garments that are worn close to the body and washed frequently, such as innerwear, T-shirts, tops, loungewear, nightwear, babywear and soft knitted fabrics.

5. The Main Technical Difference: Wet Modulus

The most important difference between modal and ordinary viscose is wet modulus. Ordinary viscose has a relatively low initial modulus. It can stretch under comparatively low load, especially in wet condition.

Modal has a higher wet modulus. This means it resists stretching better when wet. The result is better dimensional stability, better laundering behaviour and better resistance to wet deformation.

This does not mean that modal is indestructible. It is still a cellulosic fibre. Its performance also depends on fibre quality, yarn quality, fabric construction, dyeing, finishing and garment care. But compared with ordinary viscose, modal is designed to perform better under wet conditions.

6. Modal vs Viscose: Comparison Table

Property	Ordinary Viscose	Modal
Fibre family	Regenerated cellulose	Regenerated cellulose
Generic status	Generic fibre name	Generic fibre name
Process family	Viscose process	Modified viscose-route process
Wet strength	Lower	Higher
Wet modulus	Lower	Higher
Stretching when wet	More likely	Less likely
Shape retention	Comparatively weaker	Better
Shrinkage control	Needs more care	Generally better
Handle	Soft, smooth and drapey	Soft, smooth and often silkier
Dyeability	Good	Good
Absorbency	Good	Good to very good
Common uses	Dresses, sarees, tops, linings and scarves	Innerwear, T-shirts, loungewear, tops and blends
Main advantage	Drape, comfort and affordability	Wet strength, softness and dimensional stability
Main limitation	Weakness and deformation in wet condition	Usually costlier than ordinary viscose

7. Is Modal Stronger Than Viscose?

Modal is generally stronger than ordinary viscose, especially in wet condition. This is the most meaningful performance difference between the two fibres.

In dry condition, the actual strength depends on the fibre specification, yarn count, spinning method, fabric construction and finishing. But when wet, ordinary viscose loses strength more noticeably. Modal was specifically developed to reduce this weakness.

For example, a modal-rich knitted fabric used in innerwear or loungewear can give softness while maintaining better shape over repeated washing. A similar fabric made from ordinary viscose may feel soft but can be more vulnerable to stretching, distortion or poor recovery.

8. Why Does Modal Feel Soft?

Modal fibres are known for their smooth, soft and pleasant touch. This softness comes from the fibre’s cellulosic nature, smooth surface, fine fibre structure and good moisture absorption.

Modal is often compared with cotton and mercerised cotton because it can give a smooth and comfortable handle. It may also show good lustre, softness and drape depending on the fibre, yarn, fabric construction and finishing.

However, fibre name alone does not guarantee luxury. A poorly made modal fabric can still perform badly, and a well-made viscose fabric can still look and feel excellent. Final fabric feel depends on fibre quality, yarn count, twist level, knitting or weaving structure, GSM, dyeing, finishing, blending ratio and garment construction.

9. Can Modal Be Blended With Other Fibres?

Modal can be blended with many textile fibres, including cotton, polyester, wool, silk, elastane and other regenerated cellulose fibres. Common blends include modal-cotton, modal-elastane, modal-polyester, modal-viscose, modal-lyocell, modal-wool and modal-silk.

Blending is done to balance comfort, cost, strength, stretch, appearance, moisture behaviour and garment performance. For example, modal with elastane is popular in innerwear and loungewear because modal gives softness and absorbency, while elastane gives stretch and recovery.

10. Is Modern Viscose Now Identical to Modal?

No. Modern viscose has certainly improved. Producers now make better-quality viscose fibres with improved uniformity, better process control, improved sustainability claims and better wet-processing behaviour.

However, modern viscose does not automatically become modal. Modal has a specific fibre definition based on high wet modulus and high breaking strength. Unless a regenerated cellulose fibre meets the modal specification, it remains viscose or another appropriate generic category.

Correct statement: Modern viscose may be improved, but it is not identical to modal. Modal remains a separate high-wet-modulus regenerated cellulose fibre category.

11. Is Modal More Sustainable Than Viscose?

This question needs careful handling. Modal is often marketed as a more sustainable fibre, especially when it is made from responsibly sourced wood and produced by companies with good chemical recovery systems.

But it is not correct to make a blanket statement that modal is sustainable and viscose is not. Both modal and viscose are man-made cellulosic fibres. Their environmental impact depends on wood or pulp sourcing, forest certification, chemical management, carbon disulfide control, water use, energy use, wastewater treatment, producer transparency and supply-chain traceability.

A better statement is: modal can be a better-performing regenerated cellulose fibre, but its sustainability depends on sourcing, manufacturing practices, chemical recovery and certification.

12. Practical Meaning for Merchandisers

For merchandisers, modal should not be treated only as a fancy word on a label. It has practical implications for quality, garment performance and customer expectation.

When buying modal fabrics or garments, check the blend percentage first. Is the fabric 100% modal, modal-cotton, modal-elastane or only a small percentage of modal? A garment with a small modal percentage should not be described as if its entire behaviour is determined by modal.

Next, check the fabric construction. A modal single jersey, modal rib, modal interlock, modal woven fabric and modal blend fabric will all behave differently. GSM, yarn count, twist, loop length, finishing and garment construction can change performance significantly.

Ask for dimensional stability after washing, pilling performance, colour fastness to washing, rubbing and perspiration, and stretch recovery if elastane is present. If sustainability is claimed, ask for traceability and certification rather than relying only on the fibre name.

13. Common Misunderstandings

Misunderstanding 1: Modal is natural, viscose is synthetic.

This is not correct. Both are regenerated cellulose fibres. They begin from natural cellulose but are chemically processed and manufactured into fibre form.

Misunderstanding 2: Modal is only a brand name.

This is not correct. Modal is a generic fibre name. Some companies sell branded modal fibres, but modal itself is not company-specific.

Misunderstanding 3: Modal and viscose are now the same because modern viscose has improved.

This is not correct. Modern viscose may be better than older viscose, but modal remains a separate high-wet-modulus fibre category.

Misunderstanding 4: Modal never shrinks or pills.

This is not correct. Modal generally has better dimensional stability than ordinary viscose, but shrinkage and pilling depend on yarn, fabric construction, finishing, washing and garment care.

Misunderstanding 5: Modal is always sustainable.

Not necessarily. Sustainability depends on pulp sourcing, chemical recovery, manufacturing process, certification and traceability.

14. Final Summary

Viscose and modal are both regenerated cellulose fibres, but modal is a more advanced high-wet-modulus fibre designed to improve the wet strength and dimensional stability limitations of ordinary viscose.

Viscose is soft, absorbent, drapey and affordable, but it becomes weaker when wet. Modal retains better strength and resists stretching better in wet condition. This makes modal more suitable for garments that require softness along with repeated washing performance, such as innerwear, loungewear, T-shirts, tops and soft knitted apparel.

The best short explanation is: modal is not a completely different fibre family from viscose. It is a high-wet-modulus regenerated cellulose fibre developed to perform better than ordinary viscose, especially when wet.

One-line takeaway: Modal is a stronger, more wet-stable regenerated cellulose fibre, while viscose is the broader conventional regenerated cellulose fibre category.

Related Reading on Fibre Properties, Blends and Textile Testing

• How to Determine Fibre Composition in Blended Fabrics
• Determination of Linear Density of Textile Fibres: Understanding Fibre Fineness
• Mercerization: The Midas Touch That Makes Cotton Shine
• Why Combed Cotton is Better Than Carded Cotton

Sources

1. ISO 2076:2010. Textiles — Man-made fibres — Generic names. International Organization for Standardization.
2. BISFA. Terminology of Man-made Fibres. International Bureau for the Standardization of Man-made Fibres, 2017.
3. Textile Exchange. Modal. Textile Exchange Glossary.
4. Textile Exchange. Viscose. Textile Exchange Glossary.
5. Lenzing Group. Fiber Technologies: Explore Lenzing's Production Processes.

General Disclaimer

This article is intended for educational and general textile knowledge purposes only. Fibre behaviour can vary depending on producer, fibre specification, yarn quality, fabric construction, dyeing, finishing, garment processing and washing method. For commercial decisions, laboratory test reports, supplier technical data sheets and recognised national or international standards should be consulted.

What is the difference between Khandua and Sambalpuri Sarees

This post can easily be labeled as how to Identify a Khandua Saree from Sambalpuri Saree. 

I am writing this post from a buyer's perspective. In general, Khandua sarees cost less than corresponding Sambalpuri sarees. 

The main difference between Khandua and Sambalpuri  sarees is that the sambalpuri sarees have more elaborate and dense Ikat patterns, thereby making them more costly. Also Sambalpuri Silk Sarees Use Mulberrry x Mulberry yarns ( 3 ply x 3 ply) and thus have a weight of 650 to 700 grams. Khandua Silk sarees use 2 Ply Bangalore x 3 ply Malda Silk with a weight of 380-450 grams.

In cotton Sambalpuri Sarees the count is about 2/120s x 2/140s or 2/120s x 2/120s with a reed and pick of 72 and 76. Whereas in Khandua it is 2/100s x 2/100s, 2/80s x 2/80s or 2/100s x 2/80s with reed and pick of 64 and 72. One warp for Sambalpuri is only 2-4 sarees; whereas for Khandua, it is upto 30 sarees. Also Sambalpuri sarees are Manufactured in the Sambalpuri and Bargarh regions of Orissa, whereas Khandua sarees are manufactured in Nuapatna.

To translate the above for a layman, Khandua sarees are less finer and has less weight ( silk) as compared to the Sambalpuri sarees.

This is not to say that Khandua sarees are in any ways inferior to Sambalpuri, the difference is more of the material used and the fineness desired.

Now if you are a buyer or a shopper, you might be led to believe by a seller that a saree is a Sambalpuri saree and he is giving you at a bargin, but in fact it is a Khandua saree from Nuapatna.

Conversely, you might find a seller is charging you more for Orissa Ikat, when in fact, he is showing you a Sambalpuri Ikat and you are comparing it with Khandua.

Sambalpuri Ikat

Nuapatna Ikat

An Amazing source on Sambalpuri Process is this

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Orissa Diaries- Visual Blog

The pic was captured at the head office of Boyanika at Bhubaneshwar. Boyanika is a government organization promoting the handloom weavers of Orissa

 Watching a saree being woven at Barapalli Cluster of Bargarh

Watching Bandha in Preparation for Sambalpuri Ikat

Silk sarees after finishing and "ironing" being put under the sun. To "iron" the sarees are applied with water and rice starch and rolled very tightly between wooden rolls and kept under the sun. The place is Nuapatana. 

At Nuapatna - Weft yarn in preparation

Going from Bhubaneswar to Nuapatana- A long stretch of road accompanies a river branch!!!

Captured at Biju Patanayak Park Bhubaneswar.

The termites making "Valmiks" of soils. Remember Valmiki !! You can find it all the way to Nuapatana.

A classic Nuapatana Silk or "Khandua" saree

This design of Nuapatana Silk is Called "Tarawalli"

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