Textile Notes related to fiber, yarn, fabric knowledge, spinning, weaving, processing, projects, knitting, Indian Traditional Textiles and denim manufacturing
The Next stop was Nutan Fulia, a government cooperative society. Despite being government, the range and variety of products and the efficiency in their operations, makes it unique it its own way.
Have a look at the beautiful pallu of this Sari above. The pallu is done in Shibori Technique ( the fabric is stitched in patterns then dyed and then the stitches open. Notice how the variability in terms of streaks come ( the black lines) which is a part of this unique process.
This society boasts of modern dye house with reactive and vat dyes. They have chambers but are not operational yet.
For an artisan cluster, they have a water treatment plant also.
For saris they work with Tussar, Matka, Ghicha, Cotton and Silk. The usual denier for silk is degummed 20/22 and 100s count for cotton. Also use viscose rayon for ornamentation.
Below is the details of the zari used by them. It says per bundle 225 grams containing three reels.
We had rains in the morning. The evening while coming back looked beautiful. These are pictures clicked from a Restaurant on our way to Kolkata.
We left for Fulia early in the morning. Passed through Barasat, a place I have heard earlier- and not only heard worked intensively in getting the AW-13 deliveries while I was in Pantaloons. Nice to pass the place with no tension of deliveries on my head.
Fulia is in the district of Nadia. It is famous for its Tant Sari. Tant means handloom. However, it is specifically used for the cotton Jamdani including Tangail, for which the Bengal Handloom is known for. Have a look at this example
Have a special look at the blue "spot" this is a marka used by weavers to mark off the areas from where to start the butis and is an inherent characteristic of this product.
This clusters deals in Matka, Jamdani, Taant, Silk Viscose and Handpainted Garad or Tussar Saris. Handloom Saris are also woven with Jacquard attachment. Have a look at the above and the Jacquard attachment below.
The sari is woven upside down with no selvedge control mechanism. Thus one can expect to get uneven selvedge.
Have seen Yarns of 2/100s, 92s, and 100s DHCR ( Double Hank Cross Reel). Incidently Cross reel hank give better dyeing quality.
Vat Dyes are used. Also cold brand porcion colors are also used in this open dye bath. The skeins are left to dry in the sunlight after dyeing.
This Sari is found wound on the cloth roll, leaning against the wall, adding to the overall beauty of the place.
An area in the house is marked as the yarn store. One can see the packets of dyed skein lying.
This is the best part. A Maldah mango tree overseas the courtyard, around which all the loomsheds, dyeing storage and yarn unit is located. We also enjoyed a few fully ripen Maldah Mangos. Apart from that we were offered Lassi,Rosogulla and Chhana Jalebi - a completely new delicacy for me.
A completely absorbing trip to this cluster. Will take you to my next venture in the incoming posts.
Both the terms are used for traditional Indian Handloom Fabrics.
Muslin
As per BIS, muslin is a generic term for a light weight open cloth of plain or plain gauze weave. Normally muslins do not exceed 68 g/sq.m. In some cases grey fabric is used for example butter muslin and cheese cloth, whereas for others (dress material) bleached and dyed muslin is used.
Muslin can be made in the following counts(Warp x Weft - English)/reed x pick( EPI x PPI)/Wt is gm/sq m
60s x 60s / 66 x 58/ 50
64 x 80/71 x55/40
80 x 80 /76 x 73/45
100 x80 /96 x 88/ 48
120 x 100 /109 x 76/40
Normally in count, reed x pick and weight a tolerance of +-5% is observed. A dimensional change of 4% and a scouring loss of 2.5% is generally the agreed norm.
The fabric should be free of the following flaws:
-More than two adjacent ends running parallel, broken or missing and extending beyond 20 cm;
- Weft crack or more than two missing picks across the width of the material;
- Prominently noticeable weft bar due to the difference in raw material, count, twist, lustre, etc;
- Noticeable selvedge defects;
- Noticeable warp or weft float in the body;
- Noticeable oil or other stains;
-Noticeable hole; cut or tear up to 3 mm in size;
-Smash rupturing the texture of the fabric;
- Undressed snarls noticeable throughout the piece;
- Conspicuous gout due to foreign matter usually lint or waste woven into cloth;
- Conspicuous broken pattern; and
- Any other flaw which would mar the appearance or affect the serviceability or durability of the cloth.
Malmal
Malmal is generally applied to fine cotton fabric slightly heavier than muslin.
Malmal can be made in the following counts(Warp x Weft - English)/reed x pick( EPI x PPI)/Wt is gm/sq m
100x100/ 81 x 81/39
100 x 100/101 x 101/48
80 x 80/68 x 68/42
80 x 80/81 x 78/49
60 x80/68 x 68/50
60 x80/73 x 83/56
60 x60/71 x60/54
60 x60/81x71/62
Tolerance is generally 5% in both directions.
Dimensional change is 5% from loomstate and 4% from processed. Scouring loss is 6% in loomstate and 5% in processed.
Watch this classic song from Lata Mangeshkar related to Malmal
And if you are a fan of Honey Singh, here is his rap in this Song "Kurti Malmal di.."
Here are some of the interesting tables regarding Banarasi Saris obtained from this source. These tables depict the composition of these saris, time taken to weave one sari and the techno economic aspects.
1. There are three types of Sarees popular in the region: Jamdani Sarees of Nabadip, Shantipuri of Shantipur and Tangail variety of Phulia.
2. The weavers of Shantipur have made themselves famous by their professional aptitude in making Tant or Taant Saree. There are two types of Taant Sarees, Tangail and Dhanikhali. Here Jacquard weaving technique is used in these sarees.
3. The sarees are famous for designs used with extra warp in the border and cotton ground base. Muga, Twisted cotton, zari, viscose and polyester are used for the extra warp.
4. Depending upon the design, color, pattern, Shantipuri sarees are named as Nilambari, Gangajamuna, Benkipur, Bhomra, Rajmahal, Chandmala, Anshpar, Brindabani Mour Par, Do Rookha
Nilambari Saree
5. Mostly fly shuttle pit looms of width 130-140 cm are used in the cluster with 100-150 hook jacquard. 99% of the looms have jacquard attachment.
6. Average production per weaver per week of 6 days: 5 sarees
7. Value Chain Analysis
Saree
is the major cluster product, the value chain for a Santipuri cotton saree with
border is analysed as under
- Raw material accounts to
50.6% in Santipur cotton sarees.
- Value addition in weaving
including preparatory works to 30.5 % with respect to the cost price.
- Dyeing is nearly 3.8% of
the cost price of the saree.
- Margin to the master
weaver exclusive of marketing costs is 8.5% as the cost price of the saree.
8. About the various Sarees:
Nilambari
The terms
Nilambari is applied as the ground warp and weft yarns are dyed with the
indigenous indigo colour. Mainly cotton yarns are used for warp & weft. The
colour is extracted from the leaves of the herb indigo ere tinctoria. The
leaves are harvested steeped in water and allowed to ferment. A blue substance
that settled as sludge in the bottom vessel is derived and sold as indigo
cakes. The colour is pleasing and will not fade. The colour resembles the dark
blue of the clear night sky. The rich sarees are ornamented treated designs. In
some sarees the technique of weaving the designs in ground and anchal is same
as Jmdani.
Gangajamuna
The name of the saree is derived for the use of
different colours in border i.e one side red and the other black. The ground
warp is grey cotton.
Benkipar
In the saree the aesthetic value of the border design
is prominent due to the use of muga and zari( 4 in a dent ) in extra warp. The
name of the saree is derived from the diagonal pointed twill lines in the
border.
Bhomra
The name is derived from the hernet & bumble-bee.
Indigo black, red & chocolate are the common colours. In border Kashmiri
silk i.e 20/22 organza silk yarns were very commonly used. For extra warp
twisted cotton yarn, zari & muga were used.
Rajmahal
The yarn used for border is similar to Benki-Par
saree. The motif in border is diamond twill. The name of the saree is indicated
according to the enclosed space of the diamond twill weave.
Anshpar
The type of yarn in border was zari only. The only
difference is the motif i.e fish scale for which the name of the saree is
termed as Anshpar.
Chandmalla
The name of the saree is derived from the round motif
i.e. depiction of moon. Here the extra warp is cotton or golden zari. The
border is twisted cotton yarn.
Visva
– Bharati
The speciality of the saree is for using two different
coloured cotton yarns in extra warp. Coloured extra warp yarns are distributed
throughout the width of the motif in border. The denting order for these is six
per dent of a reed i.e. 4 extra and 2 grounds in borders. As a result of colour
distribution, reversible colour effect is visible in same side of border.
Usually red and black coloured yarns are selected for extra warp while the yarn
for ground border (khas) is yellow cotton. Thus variety of saree came into
production after the introduction of jacquard only i.e. 1950.
Do-rookha
This is almost similar to above variety with the
exception of yarn used for extra warp. Unlike above, the ground border yarn is
not visible. The zari & coloured yarns are used in the ratio of 2:2. It is
two sided or two-faced weave. In “Do-rookha” both the sides are exactly
identical.
Brindabani
Mour Par
Here the border is depicted by two peacocks sitting
face to face on a tree. Cotton yarn is used for both border and ground.
Jacquard is used for design.
1. The tie-dye weaving in Orissa came into existence during mid of 14th century when 100 weaver's families were brought from Raipur area of M.P. by the then ruler of Patnagarh Shri Ramai Dev. The weavers later on titled as Meher and their caste known as Bhulia.
2. The Bomkai Designs are the traditional designs in production in the village named Bomkai in Ganjam District of Orissa. Latter on it is introduced in Sonepur.
3. Silk yarn was introduced in 1980s. The body part of silk fabric was woven with silk yarns and Anchal by cotton tie and dye. The Bomkai design were developed in late 80s and introduced in early 90s.
4. There are three different patterns of production:
a. The independent weaver purchases yarns and other essential raw material on his own money, weaves clothes and sells the produce on his own either in the open market or to the traders and middleman.
b. The master weaver advance yarn and raw materials to the weavers and pay wages to them on receipt of woven cloth.
c. Instead of master weaver, there are cooperatives who do this function.
5. Both the warp and weft are dyed by this process in accordance with the requirement of the design. For border design the warp alone is processed. For Palavas or Anchals of the sari, the weft is processed (now jala designs are also preferred) and for the overall body designs both the warp and weft is processed.
6. The weavers make warp for two pieces of sarees at a time of 6.5 meters each.
7. Poor Dyeing: colour fastness is the major problem in cotton sari if exposed to sun or continuous hand washing. It was found that in cotton sari, the boarder and anchal portion fade while the body colour of the sari is intact. Colour bleeding is the major problem with silk sari.
8. Value Chain Analysis of Silk and Cotton Bomkai Sarees
The following material is derived from this source:
1. Chanderi is originally produced with three kinds of fiber mix:
a. Pure Silk: Here the warp and weft both are woven with 13/15 denier silk
b. Chanderi Cotton: Where the warp and weft are 100s or 120s cotton.
c. Silk Cotton: The 13/15 denier warp is combined with 100s or 120s cotton
The figured effects are produced with the help of extra weft.
The difference between Chanderi and Varanasi products are while chanderi uses 13/15 denier, Varanasi weave uses 20/22 denier. Now chanderi saris also use 20/22 denier silk.
The looms are the old pit looms situated in dimly lighted sheds where the whole family lives, cooks, weaves and sleeps.
Silk is generally bought in grey hanks to be dyed locally. On the other hand 80% of the cotton is bought dyed from South India and Mumbai by local merchants.
Cotton and Silk yarn is obtained from Bangalore and zari is obtained from Ahmedabad.
Production Process
Time Estimates
1. Min quantity of Silk yarn for dyeing is 25 kg or 10 hanks. It takes about 45-60 minutes depending upon the color.
2. Warping - yarn for warp to wind around a wooden drum. A warper would wind 4-5 warps of 12 sarees each.
3. Drawing in- It takes about 3-4 days per warp
4. Setting of the Jala for design of border and Pallu: 3-4 days depending upon the complexity.
5. The chanderi fabic doesn't require any postloom process and cut off from the loom and cut and sold.
Value Chain Analysis
The following is the value addition in percentage, at each stage of the Sari making:
1. Dyeing: 2
2. Warping: 2
3. Filling of Reed with Yarn: 7
4. Design Preparation: 2
5. Joining of yarn for the new lot: 2
6. Border design Makers: 0.5
7. Motif Design Makers: 0.5
8. Weaving: 30
9. Master Weaver/Cooperative Societies:provides raw material, design and marketing: 54
"There is a problem of colour-run with the fabrics produced in the cluster. Especially the problem in
silk related dyeing is on account of de-gumming. The Chanderi fabric derives its distinctiveness
from the material gums and in order to retain that the fabric cannot be dyed at high temperatures. "
Also "The temperature is approximately measured by hand. As there is no thermometer in use or a stove
with temperature control. The quantity of color, the time for which the hank is soaked, all these
factors lend an element of variation in dyeing. This particularly has an adverse bearing when more
then one hank has to be dyed in the same color".
The following is quoted verbatim from this source:
Value Chain analysis
As there are a number of items and different types of raw material i.e. cotton, polyester blends, viscose, etc. used by the RMG industry, it is not possible to give value chain analysis for all the products. After discussing with the units, the value chain analysis has been done on percentage basis as given here under –
1. Basic raw materials i.e. Grey Fabric - 50 to 60% (of sale price of products)
2. Processing charges
(i.e. Bleach or dyeing or printing) - 10 to 15%
3. Cutting and fabrication - 10 to 15%
4. Fittings and Accessories - 10%
5. Finishing and Packaging - 5 to 6%
Embroidery and Handwork (if needed) - 25% (extra on nominal sale price)
For example, if we take the garment of costing Rs.100/- without embroidery) the value chain analysis will be as under –
1. Grey fabric - 50.00
2. Processing charges - 15.00
3. Cutting and fabrication - 10.00
4. Fittings and accessories
including buttons - 05.00
5. Finishing and packaging - 6.00
--------
Total 86.00
--------
Market Price - Rs.100.00
Gross Margin - Rs. 14.00
Net profit is much lower after adjusting the expenses for establishment, electricity, transportation, depreciation etc.
Cost with embroidery will be - Rs.108.00
Market price with embroidery - Rs.125.00
1. The average production of grey fabric per loom per day is 30 meters.
2. For grey varieties, the beam length is observed to be of 1000 meters and max of 4750 meters.
3. For Sarees, the beam length is of 400 meters to 1000 meters.
4. 50% of the powerlooms operate in one shift and 50% in two shifts. As the powerlooms are working on jobwork basis, and they switch over to two shifts only if the jobwork is available. Also there is a restriction on the working of powerloom in the nights. The number of working hours for the units with one shift is 10 to 12 per day. Those which are working in two shifts work from 8 to 10 hours per day.
5. In case of sarees the powerlooms work in one shift only due to the design restrictions.
6. 95% of the units work in the range of 20-25 days in a month. In a year, 90% of the units work for 10 months and above.
7. In grey fabric production one weaver attend to normally 6 looms, if there are no dobby or jaquard deign. For all yarn dyed fabric, one weaver attends to about 2 looms. For sarees, it is one loom pere weaver.
There are two types of Production Activities followed:
1. Job work Units producing Greige Fabric
2. Entrepreneurial Units carrying out own production
In 1. The warp beam and the weft yarn is provided by the master weaver. The fabric is converted and supplied back to the master weaver.
In this case there are several disadvantages: As the job work unit supply the grey fabric without inspection, the quality of the fabric may not be best and depends upon the available infrastructure and resources.
As there are no inspection facilities so feedback is not scientific. Absence of stop motions - warp and weft as well as untrained weavers create a lot of defects. The product may have stains due to incorrect handling by weavers. Improper ventilation and housekeeping leads to lot of foreign matter in the end product.
In 2. The yarn is procured, dyed and converted.
The flow chart of the various production models are as given below:
This is as per diagnostic study conducted by the Government:
The following types of Saris are studied:
1. Double Ikat Cotton (of 2/120s cotton) or "Sakta" or "Passa Palli" saris
2. Sambalpuri Cotton Single Ikat Saris ( of 2/120s to 2/80s)
3. Tussar silk/Bafta (Cotton+ Tussar) saris
Mostly, pit looms of up to 52” – 56” inches are being used in the cluster in which Dobbys of
4 to 12 hooks are used for borders. Nearly 70 – 80% of the looms of the cluster have a
dobby attachment
Value Chain Analysis
· Raw material accounts for 28.6% in single Ikat Sambalpuri sari and 47.2% in Cotton / Silk ‘Bafta’ sari with respect to Cost Price
· For single Ikat Sambalpuri sari, app 18% of value (with respect to cost price) is added in tying and dying stage
· Value addition is mainly at the weaving stage (47.2% both in Single Ikat Sambalpuri Sari and 47.1% in Cotton / Silk ‘Bafta’ Sari) with respect to cost price
-Dyeing & Sizing provide nearly 5.5% value to the cost of the sari.
· Marketing mark ups add up to 10% and 22% respectively on the cost price of sari.
Loom Productivity
1. In 5 days 11 metres of kurta fabric is produced in 1 loom.
2. In 2 days 10 metre of Salwar is produced in 1 loom.
3. In 3 days 10 metre of dupattas is produced in 1 loom.
4. Silk Sari: In 5 days 1 sari is produced in 1 loom
5. Cotton Single Ikat Sari: In 8 days 2 saris are produced in 1 loom
6. Cotton Double Ikat Sari: In 10 days 2 saris are produced in 1 loom.
In an earlier article regarding the shrinkage of cotton ( Why Cotton Shrinks), the general causes were discussed. There is an excellent study done by Veena Verma of BMN College which looks in depth across the various factors related to yarn that leads to shrinkage. She tested 24 samples from very light weight to heavy weight for dimensional stability after soaking and 25 washings and the following are some very useful insights from the studies:
1. Basic reason for shrinkage is the relaxation which is the tendency of the yarn to revert to its normal and un stretched dimensions this is called relaxation shrinkage. Most fabrics are produced under tension which leave strains in the fabric. Usually several cleanings are required to relax it completely.
2. When the yarns are wet, they swell, and consequently the warp thread has a longer bending path to take round a swollen weft thread. The warp length must either increase in length or alternatively, the weft threads must move close together.
3. Fabrics shrinks after soaking and percentage significantly increases after repeated washing.
4. The ends per inch and shrinkage are inversely related. As the number of ends increase, shrinkage percentage decreases. There is no clear trend between shrinkage and picks per inch. This is true for both soaking and washing.
5. Higher the number of Ends per inch than picks per inch, shrinkage values are reduced.
6. More the cloth cover, less is the warp way and weft way shrinkage on soaking, this is not true for washing.
7. The fabric with coarse yarn count has more shrinkage and fabrics with finest count have the lowest shrinkage.
8. More the twist multiplier, higher is the shrinkage on washing.
9. There is no correlation in cloth weight and thickness on shrinkage.
A very popular fabric used for blouses for Sarees is called Rubia. Rubia is available as 100% cotton but a majority of it is a Polyester Cotton Blend of 67:33. The construction is either 2x2 or 2x1. The following are the technical parameters for the fabric:
Content/Composition: 70% Polyester, 30% Cotton
Weave: Plain
EPI (finished): 100
PPI ( Finished): 80
Yarn Count : Warp: 2/94s PC blend - High Twist ( single TM: 3.06, Double: 5.29)
Yarn Count: Weft: 2/94s PC blend- High Twist ( single TM: 3.06, Double: 5.29
Here the yarn is a simple ply yarn made of two singles evenly twisted together. This type of yarn is found in 2 by 2 rubia fabric. It has two plies of yarn in both directions.
Normally this fabric is available in 36" width. The fabric has a tensile strength of 41.25 kgf (warp) and 20.25 kgf( weft)- (20x 5 cms strip) and tear strength of 928 gm( warp) and 800 grams (weft)- KMI tear tester.
The colorfastness to washing, crocking, heat press and perspiration is 4-5. Dimensional stability after 3 cycles is 2%. 2% bow or skew and a rating of 4 wrt shade change and pilling in Abrasion ( 10K cycles). Washing shrinkage max lengthwise is 2% and widthwise is 1%.
A typical polyester crepe sari has the warp and weft of 100% polyester of 75 denier, the TPM of warp and weft is 1800 S&Z alternate. No. of filaments in a yarn of both warp and weft is 70 each. EPI is 132 and PPI is 86. It has a width of 44.5 inches. GSM is 72.
The ideal quality requirements and tolerance are as given below:
1. Denier: + - 5%
2. Twist per meter: +/-5%
3. No. of filaments in yarn +/- 2
4. No. of Threads per inch in warp and weft: +5%/-2.5%
5. Width : +/- 0.5"
6. Length : +/-2 cm
7. GSM: +/-3%
Other Parameters
8. Breaking Strength on 5cm x 20 cm strip, N(KGf): Warp: 240 (24.4), Weft: 190 (19.3)
9. Tear Strength , N (kgf): Warp 20 (2.0), Weft 15 (1.5)
10. Color Fastness Rating due to Light ( Change in Color):5, Washing (Change in Color):4, Staining on adjacent fabric 3-4, Perspiration acidic and alkaline (Change in Color):4, staining on adjacent fabric:4,
Rubbing- Dry-4, Wet-3, Hot Pressing: change in color-4, Staining on adjacent fabric:4
11. Crease Recovery Angle (Degrees)- Dry and Wet (240)- Minimum
BIS has to say the following about this property:
"The ability of a fabric to retain pressed-in creases and to recover from creasing is an important property, especially in case of apparel fabrics. The need for standardizing a method for evaluating crease recovery of
different fabrics has been increasingly felt with the introduction of crease resistant fabrics. When creasing force is removed from the creased fabric, it tends to recover and the creases in the fabric start diminishing at
varying rates. The magnitude of the crease recovery angle as measured according to this standard is taken as an indication of the ability of a fabric to recover from creasing.
A crease-free rectangular specimen of prescribed dimensions is folded in half so that the two limbs of the strip touch each other face to face, under a specified load and maintained in the state for a specified period.
After the creasing load is removed, the specimen is allowed to recover for a specified time.
is measured. At the end of recovery period the angle of recovery is measured"
12. Drape %: 60-75%
13. Dimensional Stability to dry heat at 105 +-2 deg C in %, Warp:1%, Weft:1%--> maximum.
In this method a sample of fabric is heated by contact with a plain, hot surface under accurately known conditions and changes in specimen dimensions are measured.
14. Dimensional change on washing percent: Warp:2, Weft:2--> Maximum
16. Pilling resistance ( after 5 hours of test): 4--> Minimum
17. Soil Release Efficiency (percent): 80--> Minimum
BIS has to say the following about this property:
"The soiling of textile fabrics is one of the most difficult problems associated with their use. Cotton and cellulosic fabrics do not pose a severe problem of soiling because of their high moisture regain. Nevertheless, the resin finished cellulosic fabrics and fabrics rich in synthetic fibres pose a severe problem of soiling during their usage. The soiling of fabrics is due to: ( a ) interfacial attraction or Van der Wall forces, ( b ) electrostatic attraction, ( c ) mechanical forces, and ( d ) hydrophobicity of the fibres.
The soil is mainly of two types, namely, dry or particulate soil and oily or greasy soil. The former which includes particles of dust, sand, earth, soot, metallic oxides and carbon with tarry substances may be hydrophilic ( metallic oxides ) or hydrophobic ( carbon ) in nature. The latter includes glycerides, long chain fatty acids and alcohols, lubricating oil, etc, which are mostly hydrophobic.
A specimen of the fabric under test is soiled with synthetic soil, washed under prescribed conditions and dried. Simultaneously, a control specimen and a control washed specimen are taken from the fabric under
test. The soil resistance and soil release efficiency of the fabric is determined using the spectrophotometer."
18. pH value of aqueous extract (Hot Method): 6.0 to 8.0
BIS talks about this property:
"The @H of aqueous extract of the textiles affords a useful index to its processing history. In addition, it is becoming more common to demand that the textile, in its various forms, shall conform to certain limits in respect of its acidity or-alkalinity, often expressed in terms of PH values of aqueous extracts."
Under Hot Method, a flask known as Erlenmeyer flask is washed with distilled or deionized water. One test specimen is taken and added to this 100 ml of distilled or deionized. water.The contents are boiled for one hour under reflux condenser. The contents are cooled to room temperature and pH of aqueous extract is measured.
Here are the technical specifications of some of the popular synthetic fabrics used in India for Ethnic wear.
Poonam
Warp is a combination of 62/36/1770-"S" Semi dull crimp polyester and 62/36/1880-"Z" semi dull crimp Polyester(2 x2). Here 62 is the denier, 36 is the number of filaments and 1770 is the no of twists per meter.
Weft is the same as warp.
Total number of ends are 3840 in a reed space of 51 inches with a reed and pick of (72 x2) x 68. In a 100 meter cloth the weight of warp is 3.1 kg and that of weft is 2.5 kg to make a total of 5.6 kg of cloth.
Dani Chiffon
Warp is a combination of 20/6/1400 full dull Nylon "S" and "Z" and weft is the same as warp.
Total number of ends are 4080 in a reed space of 40 inches with a reed and pick of (96 x2) x 80. In a 100 meter cloth the weight of warp is 1.05 kg and that of weft is 0.75 kg to make a total of 1.8 kg of cloth.
Poonam Dani Chiffon
A popular fabric for dupatta is Poonam Dani Chiffon. It is a 100% polyester in plain weave. Warp is a combination of filament polyester yarn 75/36 denier twist 1800/S and 75/36 denier with 1800 TPM in Z direction. Weft is Filament polyester yarn with 75/36 denier twist is 1800/S and 75/36 denier with a twist of 1800/Z. It has a general width of 113 cm and a finished weight of 65 GSM.
Ideal tensile strength by grab test method for this fabric is 13.2 Kg for warp and 19.6 kg for weft. Tear strength with KMI tester is 3520 grams for warp and 3392 grams for weft.
It should have a rating of 5 in colorfastness to sunlight, washing, crocking, heat press and perspiration. Dimensional stability should have a tolerance of 2% after 3 cycle. Bow/Skew should be within 2%. It should have a rating of 5 in shade change and pilling under an abrasion testing of 10000 cycles. Length wise washing shrinkage should be 2% and width wise 1% maximum
100 x 100 Georgette
Warp is a combination of 100/44/1770 Viscose "S" and "Z", Weft is same as warp.
Total number of ends are 3276 in a reed space of 50 inches with a reed and pick of (64 x2) x 60. In a 100 meter cloth the weight of warp is 4.3 kg and that of weft is 3.6 kg to make a total of 7.9 kg of cloth.
Marble
Chiffon
Warp is a combination of 50/48/2800-"S" of Semi Dull flat Poly and Weft is a combination of 50/48/3025 Z semi dull flat poly yarn.
Total number of ends are 4600 in a reed space of 58 inches with a reed and pick of (76 x2) x 76. In a 100 meter cloth the weight of warp is 3.1 kg and that of weft is 3 kg to make a total of 6.1 kg of cloth.
China Yoryu Saree
Warp is a combination of 50/36 Bright flat Poly Sized and Weft is a combination of 50/36 Bright flat Poly Sized yarn.
Total number of ends are 6000 in a reed space of 59 inches with a reed and pick of (100 x2) x 80. In a 100 meter cloth the weight of warp is 3.9 kg and that of weft is 2.9 kg to make a total of 6.8 kg of cloth.
Traditional Ways of Printing with and Extracting Indigo
Indigo has a special place in the history of textiles. It is not merely a colour; it is a complete craft process. The blue that we see on cloth does not come easily. It has to be coaxed out of the plant, transformed through fermentation or chemical reduction, allowed to enter the fibre, and finally brought back to blue through contact with air.
This is what makes indigo different from many other natural dyes. Many dyes are applied in a dissolved form and then fixed to the fibre with suitable mordants or process controls. Indigo, however, is naturally insoluble in water. To use it for dyeing or printing, the dyer must first convert it into a soluble reduced form. Only then can the colour enter the cloth or yarn. After exposure to air, it oxidizes and becomes blue again.
The traditional knowledge around indigo therefore combines plant science, chemistry, patience, and skilled hand practice. This article explains the traditional extraction of indigo, the making of an indigo vat, the use of indigo in printing, and the logic behind the colour change that makes indigo so fascinating.
The beauty of indigo lies in its unusual dyeing behaviour. Indigo pigment is not readily soluble in water. This means that the blue pigment, in its ordinary oxidized form, cannot simply dissolve in a dye bath and enter the fibre like many other dyes.
To dye cloth or yarn, indigo must first be converted into a reduced soluble form called leuco-indigo. This form can penetrate the fibre. When the material is removed from the vat and exposed to air, oxygen converts the reduced form back into insoluble blue indigo. The colour therefore develops through oxidation.
A simplified way to understand the process is:
\( \text{Insoluble Indigo} \rightarrow \text{Soluble Leuco-Indigo} \rightarrow \text{Insoluble Blue Indigo on Fibre} \)
This is why indigo dyeing often looks almost magical to an observer. The cloth may come out of the vat looking yellowish, greenish, or dull. Then, as it meets the air, it slowly turns blue. The colour appears before the eyes, but the transformation is actually a controlled chemical process.
Suggested Visual 1: Indigo transformation map — from leaf to precursor, pigment, vat and blue fabric.
Extracting Indigo from Fresh Leaves
Traditionally, indigo extraction begins with fresh indigo leaves. The leaves are steeped in water, often in a tank or cistern, for several hours. In some descriptions, the leaves are left for about twelve hours, though the exact time depends on the climate, the condition of the leaves, and the local method.
During steeping, the leaves begin to decompose. Enzymes and microorganisms act on the natural compounds present in the leaves. The important compound in the leaf is indican, which is colourless. Through hydrolysis, indican breaks down into indoxyl and glucose.
This is an important point. The blue pigment is not present in the fresh leaf in its final usable form. The leaf contains a precursor. The blue colour is created only after a sequence of chemical changes.
Once the leaves have steeped sufficiently, they are removed from the liquid. The liquid is then transferred into another tank or vessel and stirred, beaten, or agitated vigorously. This introduces oxygen into the solution. In the presence of oxygen, indoxyl molecules combine to form indigotin, the familiar blue pigment of indigo.
The blue pigment is insoluble and gradually settles at the bottom of the vessel as a blue sludge. This sludge is then collected, filtered, drained, and dried. After drying, it may be shaped into cakes, blocks, balls, or squares. In this compact form, indigo becomes easier to store, transport, sell, and use.
Thus, the journey from green leaf to blue pigment involves three broad stages: steeping of the leaves, oxidation of the extracted liquid, and collection and drying of the blue pigment. This simple-looking process hides a great deal of experience. The artisan must know when the leaves have steeped enough, how vigorously the liquid should be stirred, when the pigment has settled, and how to dry and store it properly.
Another Traditional Method: Crushing the Leaves
In another traditional method, fresh leaves are crushed and compacted to form a sticky paste. This paste is drained and shaped into balls. Such methods are useful when the dye material has to be preserved, stored, or transported in a convenient form.
The final form of indigo may vary from region to region. In some places, it is made into cakes; in others, into balls or blocks. These forms are not only practical but also reflect local tradition, available tools, and the needs of dyers and printers.
Making an Indigo Vat
To dye cloth or yarn with indigo, the blue pigment has to be converted into a soluble form. This is done in an alkaline reducing vat. The vat is the heart of indigo dyeing, because it changes insoluble indigo into a form that can enter the fibre.
Indigo vats are sometimes buried in the ground. This is done because earth and sand act as natural thermal insulators. They help maintain a more constant temperature in the dye bath. Temperature control is important because the behaviour of the vat depends on the balance of alkalinity, reduction, and microbial or chemical activity.
In traditional vats, the water may be filtered through wood ash. Wood ash contributes alkalinity and may also help reduce froth and suspended particles. Depending on the local practice, materials such as lime, sodium carbonate, molasses, starch, alcohol, or other organic substances may be added. Some vats are based mainly on fermentation, while others use stronger chemical reducing agents for quicker results.
The dyer watches the vat carefully. The colour of the liquid, smell, surface bloom, froth, temperature, and behaviour on the yarn or cloth all provide clues. In many natural dyeing traditions, the vat is treated almost like a living system. It has to be maintained, fed, revived, and used with care.
Suggested Visual 2: Cross-section of a traditional indigo vat showing reduction in the vat and oxidation in air.
Dyeing with Indigo
When cloth or yarn is dipped into the reduced indigo vat, it does not immediately appear deep blue. It may come out yellowish, greenish, or pale because the indigo is still in its reduced soluble form.
The colour develops when the material is exposed to air. Oxygen from the atmosphere acts on the reduced indigo. The leuco-indigo oxidizes and turns back into insoluble blue indigo inside and on the surface of the fibre.
For darker shades, the same cloth may be dipped and oxidized several times. Each dip adds more depth. The skill lies in controlling the number of dips, the strength of the vat, the time inside the vat, and the oxidation time between dips.
Indigo Printing in Machilipatnam
Indigo is not only used for dyeing; it is also used for printing. One traditional example comes from the printing practices associated with Machilipatnam. In printing, the artisan needs a paste rather than a simple liquid dye bath. The paste must have the right body so that it can be applied clearly to the cloth using blocks or other printing tools.
If the paste is too thin, the design may spread and lose sharpness. If it is too thick, it may not print evenly. Therefore, the consistency of the printing paste becomes a matter of craft judgement. The printer understands the paste through hand, eye, and experience.
A traditional description of the process may be understood as follows. Rice flour is mixed with water and heated to make a starchy paste. A cake of indigo is ground into powder. About two hundred and fifty grams of indigo powder may be mixed with a small quantity of castor oil. To make the dye usable quickly, caustic soda and hydrosulphite powder are added.
The ingredients are combined in stages. The starch is added last and stirred until the paste reaches the correct consistency for printing — not too runny and not too thick.
Here, each ingredient has a role. Indigo provides the colour. Caustic soda creates the alkaline condition. Hydrosulphite acts as a reducing agent, converting indigo into a usable reduced form. The starch gives body to the paste. Castor oil may help in grinding, dispersion, and smoothness of the paste.
This is a good example of how traditional craft and practical chemistry meet. The printer may not describe the process in laboratory language, but the working knowledge is precise. The artisan understands the behaviour of the paste through observation, repetition, and experience.
Fixing and Washing the Printed Cloth
After printing or dyeing, the cloth is dried for much of the day. It may then be immersed in a lime solution, followed by an iron sulphate solution. After this, it is rinsed several times, sometimes including a rinse in boiling water.
These after-treatments help complete the process and remove unfixed material. By this stage, the colour becomes more stable. Proper oxidation, washing, and finishing are important for developing good fastness.
A well-processed indigo cloth should not fade quickly in sunlight or washing. However, indigo also has a special surface character. In many fabrics, especially denim and other heavily dyed textiles, indigo may gradually rub, soften, and fade with use. This is part of its charm. But in traditional printing and dyeing, the aim is still to obtain a clear, well-developed, and reasonably fast colour.
The Chemistry Behind the Craft
The indigo process can be understood through a simple sequence. The leaf contains indican. During steeping, indican is hydrolysed to indoxyl. On exposure to oxygen, indoxyl forms indigotin. During dyeing, indigotin is reduced in the vat to leuco-indigo. On exposure to air, leuco-indigo oxidizes back into blue indigo on the fibre.
This sequence explains why indigo requires so much process knowledge. The dyer has to move the colour between different chemical states. The blue pigment must first be formed from the plant, then reduced to become soluble, then oxidized again to become blue and fixed in the cloth.
This is why indigo dyeing is often called both an art and a science. The artisan is controlling chemistry through traditional practice.
Suggested Visual 3: Full process flow — extraction, vat preparation, printing, oxidation, washing and finishing.
Sashiko and Indigo Textiles
The notes also refer to Sashiko, a Japanese stitching tradition. Sashiko involves placing several layers of cotton fabric together and sewing them with running stitches, traditionally using cotton or hemp yarn.
Although Sashiko is not a method of extracting indigo, it is strongly associated with indigo-dyed textiles in Japan. The combination of white running stitches on deep blue cloth became visually distinctive. In this way, indigo was not only a dye but also part of a larger textile culture involving repair, reinforcement, decoration, and everyday use.
Motifs in Indigo Printing
Traditional indigo printing is not only about chemistry. It is also about design. Motifs carry local vocabulary, memory, and identity. The notes mention motifs such as Dogga and Shakka, with Shakka possibly described as a wheel-like motif.
Such motif names should be verified regionally because spellings and meanings can vary across craft traditions. Many textile motifs change names as they move between languages, regions, workshops, and communities.
Why Indigo Matters
Indigo matters because it connects agriculture, craft, chemistry, trade, and culture. A small green leaf becomes a blue pigment. That pigment becomes a vat. The vat becomes a dyed yarn or printed cloth. The cloth becomes a garment, a household textile, or a cultural object.
Every stage requires knowledge. The farmer must grow the plant. The extractor must know how to ferment and oxidize the leaves. The dyer must know how to prepare and maintain the vat. The printer must know the right paste consistency. The washer must know how to finish the cloth. The user finally sees only the blue colour, but behind that blue lies a chain of skilled work.
Traditional indigo is therefore not just a dyeing method. It is a complete knowledge system.
Conclusion
The traditional way of extracting and printing with indigo shows the depth of textile wisdom developed by artisans over generations. The process begins with leaves and water, moves through fermentation, oxidation, reduction, printing, drying, washing, and finishing, and finally produces one of the most loved colours in textile history.
Indigo teaches us that colour is not always immediate. Sometimes colour has to be prepared, transformed, hidden, released, and fixed. The blue that finally appears on cloth is the result of patience, observation, and careful control.
In this sense, indigo is more than a pigment. It is a story of transformation — from plant to paste, from vat to fibre, and from invisible chemistry to visible blue.
Related Reading on Natural Dyes, Vat Dyeing and Textile Printing
This article is intended for educational and informational purposes. Traditional indigo extraction, vat preparation, dyeing, printing, and after-treatment practices vary across regions, communities, materials, water quality, climate, and workshop methods. Chemical names and process descriptions have been presented in simplified form for textile understanding.
Where chemicals such as caustic soda, hydrosulphite, lime, iron salts, or other alkaline and reducing agents are used, proper safety precautions, ventilation, protective equipment, disposal practices, and local regulations should be followed. Readers should not treat this article as a substitute for hands-on training under an experienced dyer or for formal chemical safety guidance.
